LIBRAR Y OF CONGR ESS. 

(il^qi (S0pi|nrjl}l 1?o-. 

Shell' 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



r^y- 









'j*\? 

'•^^' 



iiP; 






'■'laf 






WEST'S 

MOULDERS' TEXT-BOOK: 



BEING PART II. OF 

AMERICAN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

PRESENTING 

ORIGINAL METHODS AND RULES FOR OBTAINING GOOD, 

SOUND, CLEAN CASTINGS; AND GIVING DETAILED 

DESCRIPTION FOR INIAKING MOULDS REQUIRING 

SKILL AND EXPERIENCE. 

ALSO CONTAINING 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE UPON THE CONSTRUCTION OF 

CRANES AND CUPOLAS, AND THE MELTING 

OP IRON AND SCRAP-STEEL IN 

IRON FOUNDRIES. 



BY 



^^^ 



THOMAS D. WEST, 

PBACTICAL IRON MOULDER AND FOUNDRY FOREMAN, MEMBER OP THE 

AMERICAN SOCIETY OP MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, AND 

OP THE CIVIL ENGINEERS' CLUB OP 

CLEVELAND, OHIO. 



FJTLLY ILLUSTRATED. 




NEW YORK ; 
JOHN WILEY & SONS, 

15 AsTOR Place. 
1885. 



\\ 






^ \ii 



CorviiKiHT, 18S5, 
By THOMAS D. AVEST. 



^'?7^9 



ELKCTnoTYPKIJ AND PIlINTKl) 

UX UANU, AVKKY, AND COMl'ANV, 

BOSTON. 



PREFACE. 



Although it is more than two years since the appearance 
of the first volume, the author cannot refrain from here tender- 
ing his most sincere thanks to the press and public of America 
and England for the cordial reception given his first book. 
Also, to American foundrymen and moulders the author is 
greatly indebted for the universally rapid introduction of his 
work among them. 

The compliments which were so kindl}' tendered the first 
volume have encouraged and stimulated the author to write this 
second book. 

Many of the original articles here submitted, as in vol. i., 
appeared in " The American Machinist," and have been revised 
for this volume. Also, many of these articles have had valua- 
ble additions made to them. 

The subjects of Cupolas and Melting, also those of mould- 
ing in green sand, in dry sand, and in loam, are extensively 
treated; and this volume, in connection with vol. i., it is 
thought affords a thorough presentation of each subject. 

The author received many communications regretting the 
lack of a treatise upon cranes in the first volume : hence he 
has endeavored to present, in this, the practical and essential 



j y, riiEFArE 

ft'.'iliiros t(i Ito ooiisi(l(M'0(l in pioporly oonRtrnctiiip; tliciii for 
fi>iiii(liv iisf. .Iil», post, and tnivclliiij; rinncs arc (n-alfil, so 
llial ideas of piactical value may lie ohtaineil, eillicr f<jr (-ni^i- 
iiicrs or fouiidryincMi. 

"NVIuM-i'ver the author has thoiip;ht an cnf^ravino; would be of 
any assistance in making his subjects clear, sueli illustratiou 
is t^iven. 

As stated in the preface to vol. i., there is certainly a 
very large lieltl for new ideas and progress in foundry practice ; 
and the antlior hopes that his studies and advanced methods 
111 re presenti'd to the practical moulders of America verify the 
above statement, and will be as kindly received as those of 
his Ih'st book. 

tiio:m^vs d. west. 

Clkyklano, January, 1885. 



CONTENTS. 



THE ENGINEER, DRAUGHTSMAN, AND FOUNDER. 

Page 

Sound Casting 1 

Defects in ytructural Castini^s 14 



PROGRESS IN MOULDING. 

Novelties in Foundry Practice 22 

Mental and Physical Development in Moulding 26 

Perfection in Moulding 28 

Geometry in the Foundry 32 



PROCURING CLEAN-FINISHED CASTINGS FROM DRY- 
SAND AND LOAM MOULDS. 

Making Cylinders and Castings to Finish 38 

Moulding and casting Cylinders to procure Clean Yalve Faces . . 48 



HIGH-ART MOULDING IN LOAM AND DRY SAND. 

Casting Whole or in Parts, and Points in Cylinder Moulding . . 54 

Moulding a Jacketed Cylinder 60 

Revolving Core and Under-surface Sweeping 66 

Sweeping Grooved Cone Drums 72 

Sweeping Grooved Straight Drums 76 

Moulding Propeller-Wheels in Loam 81 

Moulding an Hydraulic Hoist Casting in Dry Sand . . . .89 
Crushing and Finning of Dry Sand and Loam Castings . . .95 

V 



VI 



CONTKNTS. 

M AXirri.Ai i\(i OF conF.s. 



MnkiiiK ami VoiitiiiK C'dn-s 
Srcuriiii; < \>rr \'fiils 



I'A.iK 

. 101 

. KtS 



ri;()(ri;i\(; fi-KAV fixisiiki) rAsTiXfiS from rjiiEEX- 

NAND Mori'.DS. 



fasting Finishod Work Horizontally . . . . 
Heavy ami Light AVork Skiniininj^-tialfS 
'l"()l>-lM)urinL; (Jatcs, and Swi-fping a Lathe Face-Platc 



114 
120 
12!) 



METHODS AND KULES FOR (;REE\-SAND AND GENERAL 
MOULDING. 



Small Castings, — The Mould-Roanl and Flask-Hinge 
IMpes, Orei'n-Sand Cons and Hollow I'ipc TattL-rns 

r.cdding-in and Rolling-over 

Coping, Venting, and Jointing Green-Sand Moulds 
Dnuving and Making Patterns .... 
Skin-Drying Green-Sand Moulds .... 

Setting and Centring Cores 

Improper Setting and Wedging of Chaplets. 

Momentum and Kules for Weighting down Copes and Cores 



1.34 
140 
140 
ir>-> 
164 
1G9 
173 
179 
187 



MLSCELLANEOUS CHAPTERS. 

Elements and Manufacture of Foundry Facing . 
■\Velding Steel to Cast-Iron, and Mending Cracked Castings 
Foundry Addition, — Oven and Pits .... 

Ladle and Casting Carriage combined .... 

Making Chilled Rolls, and Roll I-'lask, Runners and Gates 
^Moulding-Machines ....... 

]".<iuivalent Areiis for Round, S<|uarc, and Rectangular Pouring-Gates 
Errors in Figuring Weights of Castings 



2as 

217 
225 
231 

2:U 

240 
244 

247 



CONTRIBUTED ( HAPTERS. 

Melting Small Quantities of Iron .... 
Making a Cinved Pijx' from a Straight Pattern . 
Moulding Pijies on Enil in (Jreen Sand 
Three Ways of Making an .\ir-Vcs.scl . 
A .Meth.Hl i.r .Moul.Iing (iear-Wheels . 



24S 
2.")0 
2.J2 
2."')0 
2r,l 



CONTENTS. 



vn 



CUPOLAS AND MELTING IRON. 

Page 

Small Cupolas 205 

Coke and Coal in Melting Iron 273 

Intelligence and Economy in Melting 282 

Oddity and Science in the Construction of Cupolas .... 287 

Comments on Cupolas 301 

Blast and Combustion 305 

Slagging out Cupolas 310 

Areas of Tuyeres and Blast Pipes 315 

Table of Cupola and Tuyere Areas 321 

Table of Circumference and Areas of Circles, also the Areas of 
Squares 322 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE.i 



Preface . 












. 329 


Portland, Me. 


(44" cupola) 










. 330 


Portsmouth, N.II. 


(24" cupola) 










. 331 


Boston, Mass. 


(44" cupola) 










. 332 


Holyoke, Mass. 


(50" cupola) 










. 333 


Worcester, Mass. 


(26" cupola) 










. 334 


Springfield, Mass. 


(28" cupola) 










. 335 


Providence, E.I. 


(38" X 53" cupola) 










. 3:36 


Wethersfield, Conn. 


(33" cupola) 










. 337 


New- York City 


(78" X 48" cupola) 










. 338 


Yonkers, N.Y. 


(48" cupola) 










. 339 


Syracuse, N.Y. 


(40" cupola) 










. 340 


Rochester, N.Y. 


(48" cupola) 










. 341 


Jersey City, N.J. 


(45" cupola) 










. 342 


Mount Holly, N.J. 


(41" cupola) 










. 343 


Philadelphia, Penn. 


(110" X .54" cupola) 










. 344 


Erie, Penn. 


(.32" cupola) 










. 345 


Pittsburgh, Penn. 


(54" cupola) 










. 346 


Baltimore, Md. 


(54" cupola) 










. 347 


Wilmington, Del. 


(30" cupola) 










. 348 


Cincinnati, 0. 


(42" cupola) 










. 349 


Portsmouth, 0. 


(40" cupola) 










. 350 


Akron, 0. 


(;58" cupola) 










. 351 


Youngstown, O. 


(48" cupola) 










. 352 


Lansing, Mich. 


(29" cupola) 










. 353 


• Tho dime 


itiiuutj uf cupuluH tibuwu ure 


tbuir i 


iiHidc 


diamu 


Vets. 





via 


CONTKNTS. 














Paok 


liiili:iii:i|><>lis. IikI. 


(ar," nipola) .•{.>! 


( hicap., 111. 


{iU;' X 4:^ cupola) 










. :Vm 


(Jalr.shuri;, III. 


{•.10" cupola) 










. -.m 


I'.floit, Wis. 


{40'' cupola) 












. :i:,l 


Minn«'ai.<ilis, Minn. 


{'.l')" cupola) 












. 358 


lliirliniTtdM, lo. 


(2."/ cui)ola) 












. :jr.9 


(Jrinm-ll. lo. 


('.'A" cupola) 












. 3(K) 


< )ni:ilia, N»b. 


(."jO" cupola) 












. 301 


Denver, CdI. 


{:V2" cupola) 












. 302 


l'\»rt Scott, Kan. 


(.•3(5" cupola) 












. 3o;i 


St. Louis, Mo. 


(54" cupola) 












. 3M 


A.shland, Ky. 


{;!()" cupola) 












. ;i05 


Iiiiliinoml, Va. 


(40" cupola) 












. 300 


SaK'in, X.C. 


(•J(i" cupola) 












H. . 307 


Xii,slivi]lo, Tciin. 


(.")(■)" cujioia) 












. 308 


Chattanooga, Tcnn. 


(2S" cupola) 












. 309 


^[ontgoniciy, Ala. 


(28" cupola) 












. 370 


(olunibus, (Ja. 


(;W cupola) 












. 371 


Talatka, Fla. 


(22" cupola) 












. 372 


Marysvillc, Cal. 


(32" cupola) 












. 373 


The Dalies, Ore. 


(34" cupola) 












. 374 


I'ortland, Ore. 


(23" cupola) 












. 375 



UTILIZING CAST-STEEL SCRAP. 
Melting Steel in an Ordinary Cupola .... 
Melting and mixing Steel with Cast-Irou to obtain Strong 
Castings 



or Chilled 



FOUNDRY CRANES. 
Sfram-Powor Cranes 
Friction-rower Cranes . 
Hand-Power Iron Cranes 
Hand-Power Wooden Cranes 
I'ost Cnmes ..... 
'iVavelliiig Cranes .... 
(i<'aring-up Cranes. ... 
Multiplying Parts in Crane Sustaining Cords 

H(.(.ks 

lialancing and Hoisting Moulds . 

l.Mil.X 



382 
387 
391 
3fM5 
407 
413 
420 
420 
428 
435 

439 



THE 

ENGINEER AND FOUNDER. 



SOUND CASTING. 



[Read by the author before the ATiierican Society of Mechanical Engineers, 

New-York City, November, 1884.] 

The term sound is of far more importance than any other 
which can be applied to designate a good casting. A sound 
casting can seldom be judged by its outward appearance. The 
smooth skin is often nothing but a shell covering defectiveness, 
and not until a casting is broken is its soundness known. 

Soundness is often of more value in determining the strength 
of a casting, than the quality of iron of which it is made. A 
casting made of the best of strong iron can easily have its 
strength annulled through inner defectiveness. Almost all 
machinery castings are more or less liable to contain holes from 
sand, or shrinkage, or blow-holes. Castings are often so con- 
structed, that, even were the moulder to turn them out free of 
sand or blow-holes, the shrinkage-hole would show up, were 
the casting to be broken, despite all the feeding he could do. 
The reason tor this is best shown through an explanation of 
Fig. 1. Here we have, as is often the case, a heavy and a 
light section connected. Now, were it always practicable to 
have the heaviest part the uppermost, as seen at Fig. 2, so as 
to be accessible for feeding, then the moulder could justly be 
blamed were the casting not sound. 

1 



SOINIJ UASTINO. 



No (loulit every engineer will at a jilance perceive llie dilli- 
cully in olitaiiiiii^ tiie perfect .soiUMliiess of sucli a seetioii as 
Fi<^. 1. lIiTi- we liave the heaviest portion .sunnouiileil l»y a 
li^hl Itody, whii'h will he set much the soonest. The light part 
luiving frozen, any fcedinj^-heail that may J)e over it cannot be 
of any further benefit in supplying the lower heavy portion to 
feed its solidifying crust, which, by the way, in many eases, 
may not have begun to set until after the upper light part has 



.Teeder 



Feeder 



rrrdcr 




Fi-. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



nearly solidified. This lower body, having nothing now left to 
draw from, will draw metal fron) its upi)ermost liipiid portion ; 
which, in such a section as shown, would leave cavities which 
would be apt to weaken the casting at A. 

In practice, when such sections as at Fig. 1 are thought to 
I»e recpiired to stand nuich strain, it is best generally, when 
practicable, to have an enlaigeinent made, as seen at 7>. Fig. ^. 
This gives a body which, l»3' means of a leeding-rod, and by 
occasionally pouring hot iion in the feeding-head, will remain 
in a lluid slate as long as the heavy portion. This accom- 



SOUND CASTING. 3 

plished, it can be readily seen tliat tlie formation of a cavity, 
as at A, Fig. 1, is prevented. 

(It must be, however, understood, that enlarging a section, 
as in Fig. 3, is only recommended in cases where it is not 
practicable to attach independent feeding-heads. Where such 
a section, as in Fig. 3, is at the outer portion of a mould, and 
the heavy part to be fed is below the joint of the mould, it ma}^, 
in many cases, be fed by feeders placed from G" to 8" from the 
surface of the mould. Connections running from the feeding- 
heads, if the case would not admit of branch gates being drawn 
inward or outward, could easily be formed with cores having 
holes of the size required.) 

Now, it is by no means practicable to attain soundness in all 
castings by the above means ; for there are many moulds in 
which the intended form of the casting would be made almost 
unrecognizable, were the}' to have all their heavy sections thus 
reached and fed by risers. Attending this is often the imprac- 
ticability of placing over three or four feeders upon a mould ; 
for often the bars of the cope, chaplets, binders, and weights 
will not permit the use of any more. Then, again, were it prac- 
ticable to have a cope filled with feeding-heads, there are many 
castings, which, in order to be sound, would require that more 
men be taken off from the work of "running off the heat" 
than foundries at casting-time can generally spare. 

It is very evident, from the shapes of existing patterns and 
castings, that but little thought has been given to this element 
involved in obtaining an entirely sound casting. The best place 
to study this error is at the scrap-pile. There one can find 
the shrinkage-hole in many forms. Often fillets which were 
intended as factors for strength will be found to be exactly the 
reverse. The greater part of machinery castings inade are 
more or less filleted ; and some designers have the idea that 
the larger the fillet, the greater the strength given. In cases 
where the fillet is fed by other metal than that contained in its 



4 SOl'NI) CASTINt;. 

cfiitral IkhIv, this may lu' triic. Often fillets arc so hituatcil, 
tliev eaiiiiot Ite {yi\ \>\ oilier than tile metal euiitaiiied within 
their <t\vn Itmly ; and thei-et"<jre, as illnstrateil hv \"\<^. 1, a large 
lillet in sneh eases may (il'len be a sonree of unsoundness. 




m 



Tcfitcr 



3 



fc 



3T 



Ti! 



u 



Fig. 4. 

A well-proportioned casting should not always be considered 
only from the standpoint of the strains which its resi)ective 
parts have to stand. "While it is often tnie that some part may 
be very li_ij:ht in comparison with others, it is more often better 
that the li(jht ixirt be made heavier, in excess ofivhat its stnnujth 
requires, in order that strains may be avoided, as well as " draw- 
holes," caused throur/h unequal thirlness of parts. 

To give some data as to what extent ordinary cast-iion will 
shrink, 1 have lately been experimenting with round balls of 
different diameters. The sizes of these were respectively about 
■^'\ -''s"? ''4 "i J^'it^ 10|". Two of each size were cost at three 
different heats, thus making altogether twenty-four balls ; and 
of these, twelve were cast without any feeders, while twelve 
had them. The feeding-heads for 4" balls were 21" diameter; 
for i>^" balls, 3^" diameter; for Gf b:dl, 4" diameter; for 
1U2" ball, ')" diameter. 

For the liist three sizes, the height of the head from the 
llask-joint up to the top of gate was i)", and for the l'>jj" balls 
the gale-head was 12". The gates which admitted the metal 
into the moulds were cut broad and very thin, in uider that 



SOUND CASTING. O 

they should freeze a few moments after the nioiilcl became full, 
thereby insuring that metal did not enter through the pouring- 
gates to supply au}^ shrinkage. In pouring these balls, the 
iron was medium hot, and tlie gates were filled up to the heights 
given. The balls having the feeding-heads were "churned" 
until they solidified. In cleaning the castings, the feeding- 
heads were chipped off, so as to preserve the spherical form of 
the balls as much as possible. 

This statement with reference to the manner of moulding and 
casting the balls is simply given to show the conditions under 
which the tests were made. 

The following is a table giving the weights of the balls, and 
the difference between the fed and the unfed balls : — 

FIRST HEAT. 

Mixture of Iron. 
200 lbs. ordinary No. 2 pitr and 400 tbs. scrap. 



inAMKTER 

OK Balls. 


Fed. 


Unfed. 


SUUINKAGE FOIINP. 


Pkbcentauf, op 
Shrinkage. 


4" 

5s" 

or' 

103" 


8 tbs. 12 OZ. 
20 tbs. 11 oz. 
. .39 tt)8. 10^ oz. 
150 tbs. 


8 tbs. 10 oz. 

20 lbs. 8 oz. 

39 lbs. 4 oz. 

147 lbs. 15 oz. 


2 oz. 

3 oz. 
6^oz. 

33 oz. 


1.428 
0.906 
1.024 
1.375 



SECOND HEAT. 

Mixture of lion. 
100 lbs. No. 1, Bessemer. A strong colje iron. 
100 tbs. No. 1, Hubbard. A strong colce iron. 
100 lbs. No. 1, Pine Grove. A strong ctiarcoal iron. 
300 lbs. Machinery scrap. 



DIAMETEK 

OF Balls. 


Fed. 


Unfed. 


SHRINK AGE FOUND. 


PERrENTAOE OF 

Shrinkage. 


4" 
5i" 
63" 
lOi" 


8 lbs. 131 oz. 
20 tbs. 13 oz. 
39 tbs. 11^ OZ. 
149 tbs. 12 OZ. 


8 lt)S. 12 oz. 
20 tbs. 9 oz. 
39 tbs. 6 oz. 
148 tbs. 7 oz. 


IJ OZ. 

4 OZ. 

Si OZ. 

21 OZ. 


1.060 
1.201 
0.805 
0.876 



This second heat was poured with middling fluid iron. 



SOI'NI) CASTINO. 



TJinil) IIKAT. 

Mirliirr .</• /;..«. 

4(>n HtH. No. 1, lliitibiird. A KlroriK rokc- iron. 
2iKi |Im«. MiicliiniTy hit«ii Iron. 



DiAJdKTI K 


F»:i.. 


I'MF.I". 


SlIBINKAtiK K'lUSIl. 


ruiKKNTACK OK 
61IUINKAUB. 


4" 

f'J" 

loi" 


8 Rxi. 14] oz. 
'2u ttiM. 14 oz. 
:i'J lbs. l-.'l oz. 
149 n«». 8 oz. 


8 Dm. 124 oz. 
•><) III". '.*{ oz. 
:ju ll>rt. 7i «z. 
14S Dm*. C oz. 


21 oz. 
41 oz. 

.'> (iZ. 
IS nz. 


1.272 

0.7S.-) 
o.T'iJ 



111 this thinl lu-at, with the exception of the lo^" halls, they 
\\v\v :ill poured with a more fluid metal than was used in the 
two iip|ier lu'ats. This I would assiirn as the reason for the (>3", 
Tii^". and l" balls lieing heavier than in any of tlie other two 
ln'ats shown. 

In elassiiiii one heat against another, the mixture of the 
iron must he taken into cousidi'iation. Balls from each of 
the respective heats were split in order to learn, if possible, 
the cau.se (jf the dissimilarity of weight most noticeable in the 
smaller sizes. 




f'^D UNFED 

Fig. 5. 

The cut at Fig. 5 partly illustrates the fracture of the split 
balls. The smallest-sized unfed balls showed a very o\)QVi grain 



SOUND CASTING. 7 

at their centres, gradually increasing in density towards the 
shell. Tlie uufed 10^" balls were not only ver}- porous at their 
centres, but contained large holes as well. The flat place seen 
at K shows about how the top part of the unfed balls looked. 
This was, of course, formed while the crust remained fluid 
enough to supply shrinkage. After the crust became set, the 
balance of shrinkage was then drawn from the innermost fluid 
portion of the balls, as proved by the porousness and holes 
found when the balls were split open. The fed balls were the 
most dense in the middle ; the most porous part of them being 
about midway between the shell and centre, as seen in the cut. 
The density of some of the fed balls at the centre was remark- 
able, and was a clear explanation of the cause of their variation 
in weight. This centre density was, no doubt, mainly caused 
by the pressure exerted by the feeding-rod, and the occasional 
supplying of the feeding-heads with hot iron. When feeding 
a casting, the feeding-rod at the latter end is more or less 
enlarged, caused by molten metal sticking to it. This may be 
knocked off, or a new rod used ; but, whichever way is used, 
there will exist variations in the manipulations of feeding, suflS- 
cient to cause the dissimilarity in weights seen. It seems 
reasonable to assert that a thick feeding-rod should exert more 
of a pressure and disturbance than a thinner rod, and that, the 
smaller the ball, the more effect could be produced. 

In moulding these balls, I was very careful in all the manip- 
ulations performed. The ramming, venting, drawing of the 
pattern, and gating were as near alike as study and care could 
make them. In feeding, attention was given to the procuring 
of solid castings. The 10|" ball would occupy from fifty to 
sixty minutes to be fed solid ; and, although these largest balls 
show about the lowest percentage in shrinkage, they no doubt 
give the nearest approximation that it would be practical to 
assign to shrinkage in the general run of castings, which, if 
estimated at one pound for every hundred pounds of casting^ 
would not be far out of the way. 



SOUND CASTINO. 



While it is fsscntial tliat .1 ciistinji; should Ito fi-d solid, to lie 
stiiiii;^, the (ciiiiM ralmc of (he iioii tist-d is also a I'aflur for 
rousidi'ialion. 

Some time ap) I madi' the asserti(jn, that metal poured at a 
dull heat would produce the strongest iron (an opini<;n then held 
liy others lieside the writer). Ilavin;^ made this assertion, there 
coulfl l)e' no one more anxious than myself to have seen this 
kept a n):iiutained fart. Mr. (iurdiner, foreman of Pratt & 
AVhitney's foundry at Hartford, Conn., has iuformeil me, that, 




Fig. 6. — Testing-machine 



tIirout2;h experiments which he had made with test-bars poured 
dull and poured hot, he found the hot-poured 1»ars the strongest. 
Thinkinii; that I might be in error, from the fact that the tests 
I had made were but few and crudely performed (as can be 
seen from the description then given), I desired to give the 
question another and a more thorough test. Having no testing- 
machme, I devised the simple affair shown in Fig. G for the 
purpose of dealing with the subject. In using this machine, 
bars 1" square X 21" long were tested. In all tests, the hot- 
poured bars stood the greatest load. To make sure that my 
machine was working correctly, and to know what the results 



SOUND CARTING. 9 

would lie, were heavier liai's used than 1" square, I had some 
l)atterus made, measuring 4]", '2-\'\ and i\'' square by 24" 
loug. When cast they were taken into the machine-shop, 
and accurately planed up to the respective sizes, 4", 3 J", 2", and 
1" square. The following table shows the strength of the duU- 
and hot-poured bars, as found by tests taken by an Olseu 
machine at the Otis Steel Works, Cleveland, O. : — 



Section of Babs 
24" Long. 




BUEAKINti 

Load. 


Section of B.m:s 
i'4" LoNU. 




Bkeakinu 
Load. 


4" square. 
4" 


not . . 
Dull. . 


56,130 
49,S30 


2" square. 
2" 


Hot . . 

Dull. . 


9,-520 
6,400 


3r " 

3r " 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 


38,470 
36,960 


1" 
1" 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 


1,050 
1,020 


2" 
2" 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 


'.."jeo 

6,340 


1" 
1" 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 


1,130 
900 


2" 
2" 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 


8,650 
6,810 









The above bars all showed a perfect fracture, with the excep- 
tion of the 3|" dull bar, which showed a hone3'combed centre. 
These S^" bars were intended for 4" : but as soon as the skin 
was broken when planing the dull bar, blow-holes were seen ; 
and, thinking that were the bar planed down they might disap- 
pear, the machinist was instructed to make the bars S^" square. 
As every cut revealed fresh holes, it was found no cleaner at 
3A" than at the 4" square. 

These blow-holes were readily accounted for by tlie fact that 
the iron with which this bar was poured was so dull that it 
would hardly flow out of the ladle. It was purposely so poured 
in order to learn how it would stand for strength. The result 
as shown will no doubt be a surprise to many, as it was to me ; 
for, although this bar showed such a bad fracture, we see that 



10 SOUND PASTINO. 

it stood within 1,')!'^ j)oiin<ls :\s iniicli as tlio hot bar, whoso 
fractiiii' was jirifccl likr all the otiicrs. It mi^ht l»f wrll 
to state liiut Iht'se ti-st-hurs were cast vertical, in onU-r to 
insure their being sound and clean. 'J'herc wouUl he two I)ar8 
of the same size nioul(U<l ; and after one was poured with the 
hot metal direct from the eu[tola, the ladle would he allowi-d 
to stand until the l)alance of the metal was just dull enoii<:h to 
inMiic that the casting shoukl lun up full and s(|uare. I have 
omitted the mixtures of which the respective bars were made, 
for the reason that a knowledge of them W(nild be of no assist- 
ance in determining the end sought. 

Since making the above tests, it occurred to the writer, that 
in his first experiments, which showed dull iron to make the 
strongest bars (seen in vol. i. p. 233), the result was mainly 
due to the fact of the lirst test-liars being poured with metal 
which was, as stated, agitated with wrought-iron rods. 

The above bars were all poured with iron which was not in 
any wa}' agitated, the metal being left to cool off naturally. 
Therefore the first test may not be in any error, and but simply 
go to show, that, when practical, it is benelicial to agitate hot 
metal with wrought-iron rods. 

Before closing, I would respectfully call attention to the 
machine shown in Fig. fi, and at left of Kig. 4. 

This machine I invented for the purpose of aiding me to 
determine the strength of the \" square bars above mentioned. 
As some such machine would be found very useful to many, I 
studied to make it as presental)le as ])ossil)le. The weight of 
the whoU> machine is only about eighty pounds: and anyone 
who may choose to give it a trial would, I think, be pleased with 
its workings, especially in view of the amount it would cost to 
make one (which should not exceed six dollars). The machine 
is best adapted for testing foundry mixtures of iron, and new 
l)rands of pig-iron. As seen, it will record the three essential 
points which foundrymen ought to know al)out their iron : — 



SOUND CASTING. 11 

The first is the contraction of tlae iron ; , 

The seeoud, its clejlectioii ; 

The third, its strength. 

lu obtaiuiug the coutraction, the pattern A, from which the 
test-bars are to be made, should be just the length of tlie dis- 
tance between the standpoints BB. Then, Avhen the bars are 
cast, all that is necessary after one is set in place is to keep 
it tight to one end, and the space at the other will give the 
contraction. 

For obtaining tlie deflection, a piece at F has a slot through 
which a thumb set-screw binds it against the stand H. Before 
commencing to screw down upon the bar A, the piece F is set 
down upon the ratchet-wheel K; and, being secured bj' means 
of the thumb-screw above mentioned, it will, of course, remain 
stationary. Then, when the bar A breaks, its deflection can be 
told by the space between J' and the top of the ratchet-wheel. 
The two arms which F is seen to have are for the purpose of 
holding a small 2" iron rule, divided into fifty or a hundred 
parts ; and there are slots in the arms for the purpose of hold- 
ing the rule. 

To obtain the strength, the load is applied by means of the 
screw E, which is 1^", having nine threads to the inch. In 
the bottom of the screw, there is a steel pin having a bear- 
ing-surface of about y. The ratchet-wheel K is, of course, 
secured to the screw E, and a part of the screw projects up 
aliove it so as to leave a pin for the ratchet-lever D to work 
up on. The lever D is provided with a ratchet-pawl, so that 
the operator can stand in the same place while working the 
screw. Behind the pawl is a spring so as to force it into the 
teeth of the ratchet. At /S' is a sliding band, which, when 
pulled back, releases the hold of the spring upon the pawl, 
thereby allowing the ratchet-wheel, or screw, to be turned back 
without removing the lever D. At the end of the lever is a 
common twenty-five-ceut spring-balance scale. Across its face, 



12 SOI'MI CASTINf}. 

at /i', is (Ittcil :i thin iiiccc <»f luass or copper plato. A wire is 
inscrlccl ill a hiiiall liulr wliicli is <lriilcil tliroiigli tia- litllc pin 
of till' halaiicc wliicli iiidir-atcs tlii' pounds; this wire projects 
out from this pin n|)on eaeh side alike. Then, when imlliiig 
the hahineo, tliis wire squarely pushes u|) the reiristerin<;;-plate R^ 
so that, when the piece to l)e testeil breaks, the plate will rej^is- 
ter the load. 

The length of this lever, from tiie centre of the screw to the 
point from whieh the l)alancc pulls, is 18". The reason for 
Laving the scales lying in the semicircular frame P is simply 
to insure that the pulling is always done in the same direction. 
The scale used with this is the twenty-four-pounds scale ; and a 
load of twelve hundred pounds (which is altout the strengtli of 
ordinary cast-iron when tested in such sized bars as shown), 
exerted upon a bar to l)e broken, will show but about twelve 
pounds upon the scale. 

In using this uiaehine, were it desired to graduate the scale 
so as to know in actual pounds what load was being applied, 
all that is necessary is to set the machine upon some rolling 
l)latform-scale which will weigh about two thousand pounds. 
After the machine is bolted or clamped to the lower frame of the 
scales, and the weight of the machine noted, then turn down 
the screw, and, as the beam of the platform-scale rises, mark 
off upon the face of the spring-balance at ever}- hundred a 
straight mark. Then, after going as high as is desired, the 
hundri'ds can l)e sulKlivided if preferred. Now, I know that 
many will object to the use of the screw as a feature of this 
machine. The machine is certainly one that could not be used 
as a standard, but it will answer to let a shop know tiie relative 
strength of its irons. If the screw is an easy fit, kept cU-an 
and well lubricati'd, the machine shouM, for such a cheap 
wrinkle, give good approximate results. At least, the (Inflec- 
tion and contraclion are two thiugs which could be counted upon 
as positive. 



SOUND CASTING. 13 

When making the test-bars, they should be run by means of 
skimuiing-gates ; and in moulding them, care must be exercised 
in order to have them come all alike. The bars I used were 
made in a flask which had a flat iron bar mortised into each end 
of the nowel, just as far a[)art as the pattern is long. By this 
means the moulds could not be lengthened through any rapping 
of the pattern. 

To know the strength of iron, and the amount which it will 
contract, are certainly points of value in aiding to make strong, 
reliable castings ; and while it is often impossible to know 
whether a casting is sound, until it is broken, we may, through 
a knowledge of the mode adopted in making it, often be guided 
in placing confidence as to the strength and soundness of the 
casting produced. 

It should not be always looked upon as the culmination of 
skill to make a casting "peel." and be smooth. Man}' castings 
are more easily produced smooth than sound, and the skill and 
experience generally required to make sound castings will often 
rank far above that required to make them smooth. 



14 DEFECTS IN STUUCTUHAL CASTINGS. 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTL'RAL CASTLXCIS. 



[Read by the author before the Civil Enj^ineors' Club of Cleveland, 
July 10, 188.!.] 

TiiK viihio of .sound castiiijTs in struotiinil work is Itost cotn- 
l)ivlu'n(.lc(l hy those wlio have suffered losses tbrougli tlieir 
di'fec'ts. 

Formulas and tables upon the limit of elasticity, compression, 
and tensile strength of cast-iron, might often be called /dehors 
of faith. For, did the mechanical engineer know how low his 
factor of safety is often bronglit through defectiveness, he 
could not help acknowledging that many massive structures 
are built more by faith than by facts; and while there arc a 
great number of well-ascertained facts and definite laws for the 
guidance of those engaged in construction, there are often de- 
fects, caused tlirough ill manipulation and material, that would 
seem to make structural formulas and tables but a starting-point 
for guessicorJc. In the investigation of cast-iron structuial or 
machine accidents, it is rarely the case that the work is found 
imperfect through its design. The verdict generally given is 
defective material or poor workmanship. 

Castings for structural and machine building, wliere an injury 
to them would be more or less apt to cause the loss of life and 
property, are, as a class, what engineers are required to deal 
with, and often stake their rei)utation and welfare upon. As 
a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, so is a casting no 
stronger than its weakest defect. Almost every casting made 
is weaker in some parts than in others ; not necessarily so 
through design, but often through causes that in some cases 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 15 

might be avoided through the aid of practical experience and 
skill. 

Heretofore foundries have generally been looked upon as 
nothing but dumping-holes for blocJiheads, dirt, and piij-iron. 
There is no question but that we have them all. But I can 
safely assert that in man}- of them there is labor that is worthy 
of the mature study of our brightest engineers. 

Because work is dirty, it is no sign that a thick and muddy 
brain could do it, or that there is no field for thought or study. 

The defects in castings are due to many causes, some of 
which are generated outside, as well as upon the inside, of 
foundry walls. Those outside could be classed under the liead 
of design and competition ; inside, under the head of manipula- 
tions of mould and metal. 

Competition is often detrimental to the production of good 
structural castings, for the simple reason that the work is taken 
too cheap, thereby not allowing the lowest bidder enough max*- 
gin to spend for good material and labor. In this might be 
seen one of the reasons why the engineer should familiarize 
himself with the workings of a foundry, in order that he may 
be able to correctly judge what different classes of castings are 
worth in dollars and cents to manufacture. Structural castings 
cheaply bought are often cheaply made, and may answer for a 
time ; but their steady employment will sooner or later result 
in some disaster. With reference to the designing of structural 
castings, the draughtsman's and pattern-maker's work is often 
a large factor in the procuring of clean and sound castings. 
This subject can be better understood and taken up by the fol- 
lowing discussion of mould and metal. Every structural cast- 
ing is apt to contain some dirt. This dirt is generated from the 
mould's surfaces and the metal's impurities. The amount of 
dirt a filling-mould will collect depends mainl}' upon three things : 
the first being the moulder's ability j^roperli/ to make a moidd ; 
the second, the shape and size of a mould; third, the style and 



10 DKFKCTS IN srui( rriiAi, castinos. 

vutiiiirr III irhifJi till' nuiuhl in j ion red and (juti'd. The injury or 
wcakiii'ss thai dirt will caiise to Ji casting depends niK)n its Imlk, 
iiiid where il is lodj^ed. There are some castinj^s in whieh cer- 
tain portions can contain more or less dirt, anil still not mate- 
rially iiiiiiair their strength for the pnrpose intended. 'I'jje best 
jndge of such defects should l»o the engineer himself. Now, 
if this he the fact, it seems hut a step farther for the engineer 
to a<Mjii;niil liiiiisrlf with the pnutical moulding of any special 
joh, and ihen-hy cause arrangements to he proyided, whereliy 
the moulder coidd often be assisted in haying rcccjitades or 
jKirls tiiat would catch and hold the dirl in such places that 
little or no injury could result therefiom. 

It would be an impossibility to here giye any data that could 
be used as a standard for the procuring of eyery casting clean 
and sound, as ^vhat might work well in one case woulil seldom 
do for another. 

Ilowcyer, there are two or three points, that, if explained, 
would show principles that might often be applied to greatly 
assist in the cleanliness of eastings, and also giye to the noyice 
an idea of means used for collecting the imi)urities of the metal 
licfore it enters the mould. In pouring a mould, the tendency 
of all dirt or material, whose specific grayity is lighter than the 
iron used, is to Hoat or rise toward the surface of the metal. 
This fact is often taken adyantage of by what foundrymen call 
a skimming-cjate. To fully show its form and principle, the 
sketch (Fig. 7) is giyen. At A is what is coinnaonly called a 
basin ; into this the iron is poured, and the basin filled as soon 
as possible. From A the metal flows through the channel X to 
B, from B to E ; from E it is carried downward, and flows into 
the mould as represented by the arrow at K. 

Now, it is ver}' evident, that, by lia\ iiig the basin A kept full, 
the metal in the riser F should be about on a leyel with that 
in the basin. 

The iron that runs into the mould being taken from the bot- 



DEFECTS IN STRUOTURAL CASTINGS. 



17 



torn of the liquid metal, as represented at^, it must necessarily 
be free of impurities that, by reason of gravity, have risen to 
the surface, as shown at D and S. While this explanation 
is only to give an idea of the principle, it might be well to state 










■W. 









JMoiJd. 



li 







'■•■'.• '^teSfKtM.' ■•:!■.•:••'■•:■■■•■■•■ •■■■ 



>''^«^'=»=Aj^ fif ^\ 









i':-VvjVTiii-i-.:: 




Fig. 7. 

that the principle is used in a varietj^ of forms, made to suit 
different moulds and conditions. The value of skimming-gates 
is often lost through the moulder's not using judgment in mak- 
ing the gates or runners 5, jP, and E^ having a proper relation 



IS DKFKCTS IN SlUrcri KAI. CASIINfJS. 

to cMfli (itlitT. /VlioiiliI nlwMVs lie I lie l:ULr«'sl, in onlcr to alTonl 
room Toi- till- dill to rise. 1', .should he l:ir<;cr tliaii tliat slio'.vn 
liclow E. If K wc'iL- lar<ier tliun />', it would l)e ii dillic-ull iiiatttT 
to kfC'i) the dirt from itas.siiig into the mould ; for the .simple 
reason tliat E would lalu' iron fasti-r tlian 7i, tlicrcliy not allow- 
ing tlic dirt-riser heads I) and F to lie kept full, which must lie 
doni' in order to collect and hold the imi)urities as shown. 
KeepinLi; the riser /-'' full is not always a <:;uaranty that the 
impurities are being collected: the How of metal may he too 
fast to give the impurities a chance to be held. A point to 
l»e ke[)t in view is, the longer that metal can be practically 
mainfained in F and D, before passing into the mould, the more 
puri^ficd it shordd be. In this cnt shown, the E 1^" gate would 
be better if it were not so nearly under the dirt-riser F, as 
shown. The farther away E can practically be carried from F, 
the more effective will such a skimming-gate be iu catching and 
holding the dirt. 

The gates or runners, ZJ, F, and E>, are supposed to be round ; 
and the sizes shown represent about what relation such skim- 
ming-gates should bear to each other. The sketch marked 
'• whirl " shows one of the zrrinkles sometimes used. The con- 
nection I), if cut from B to F in the manner shown, ■will cause 
the metal to whirl in F, thereby assisting the dirt or impurities 
to rise up, as shown at S. The greater the whirl, the better 
the results. Another plan, sometimes practised to catch and 
hold impurities from going into a mould, is as shown at N. 
This is commonly called a skimming-core : it is built or set into 
the main basin, from 2" to 6" lower than the reservoir's bottom, 
J'J*; below this core is made a basin, as shown at X; when 
this basin is tilled with metal, the ladle's dirt is held as shown 
at F, and the clean iron flows through at X. The amount of 
dirt or impurities that a well-contrived skimming-gate or basin 
will gather and keep from going into a easting is often remark- 
able. The section marked " Direct " shows the method practised 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 19 

in ordinaril}' jxnted moulds, in which tlioro is nothing to prevent 
the dirt or impurities from passing into the mould, except what 
is held up by keeping the basin full of metal while pouring. I 
should like to here treat upon other forms of gates and runners 
in their relation to special forms of eastings ; hut as my time 
to prepare even what I have was very short, I shall have to 
dispense with much that should be brought out in order 
to fully discuss such a subject as the title implies. It is not 
intended here to convey the impression, that, by having a well- 
planned skimming-gate, the casting is sure to be free from de- 
fects. In some cases, where the making of the mould is in the 
hands of a first-class moulder, it might be so ; but, as a general 
thing, the skimming-gate is but a small factor. About all that 
can be said of it is, that it aids in collecting the iynjnirities of 
iron before it 2^asses into the motild. The engineer has other im- 
perfections that he often needs to be more watchful of than the 
impurities of the iron ; consisting of scabs, blow-holes, cold-shuts, 
misplaced cores, improper feeding, etc. Any one of these could 
form a hidden defect that would reduce a casting to one-twelfth 
of what should be its ultimate working strength, and maybe 
greatly exceed that, going from twelfths to twentieths. Such 
defects cannot be bridled with mathematics in any form : they 
are infinite, treacherous, and beyond human reason to define. A 
scab is part of the mould-surface flaked off, the depth of which 
varies from ^y up to G" in thickness. When a scab is over \" 
in thickness, there will be generally more or less visible blowing. 
Sometimes this mould or casting blowing will become so violent 
as to tear a mould all to pieces, thereby making the exact form 
of the intended casting nnrecognizable. Such defects as this 
will, as a general thing, leave but little doubt as to the casting's 
future use ; they, being too apparent to deceive, must necessarily 
be introduced to the scrap-pile. When a mould scabs, the sand 
mingles with the iron ; some of it ma}' be visible, while some 
may not ; the sand being specifically lighter than iron, it 



20 ni;i'i:crs i\ siurci ikal {'Asiivris 

nnlurally rises until sl(iiii>c(l ]>y coiitac-l with (mucs <ir llio mould's 
surfaces, ete. 'I'liis is a point in (lesi;j;nin^ eastings, lliat slionlil 
1k' renienii»ere(l ; as, with this in mind, the sections tliat are 
lialde to eonlinc or catch diit iiii(jht oj'tcn be made thicker than 
t/ie denign icouUl otherwise call for, thereby allowinrj fur a jyrob- 
able reduction in .strength. 

To ftntiier convey tliis idea, I would call attention to the 
bkctcii of a cdhinm section. As a <feni'ral thiiii^, — in fact, 
J never saw or lieard differently, — colunnis are want*'d to l>e of 
an even thickness all around. I remember, some twenty-two 
years back, insi)ectors testing a lot of columns (they might 
have been pipes; Jiut tiie princii)le involved is the same). ^ The 
shop where this inspection or testing occnrri'd was at the I'ort- 
land Locomotive Company's foundry, Poitland. .Me. in th«' 
testing of these castings, two rails were placed parallel ; and, 
after being levelled, the castings were raised, one at a time, 
and set ui)on them. The inspectors would tlien rotate them 
about one-half their circumference; and, after coming to a 
stand, they would then be allowed to find their own centre of 
gravity. B}' this process, any uneveuness of thickness was 
quickly detected ; and if any of the castings, in revolving to 
their centre of gravity, went faster thau the allowed speed, they 
were condemned. 

To the best of mj' memory, the castings were made in green 
sand, and cast horizontally. Now, the question in my mind is, 
AVas not the test somewhat in error? In the horizontal casting 
of any cylindrical-shaped mould, the cope, or top part of the 
casting, cannot be as sound as the sides or bottom, for the rea- 
son that it will be more porous, and coutaiu more dirt than any 
other portion of the casting. 



« Mr. A. C. Ootclu'll Plated, during Uic very interesting discnssion wliich followed 
llic reading of tlie aiillior's paper, (liiil, being in rorlland wlien tlie tests were made, ho 
r<'ineml)ered lliat liie eolumnii or pipes referred to as tested at tlie I'ortland Locomotive 
Wurlis were pipes cast borizontall}', and that about onc-lliird of Ibern were eoudeiuued. 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 21 

I think it is a safe assertion to make, that if a horizontally 
cast pipe or column, tliat was found to stay in equililjrium at 
any point when being tested upon rails, were given an even 
internal tension, or end compression strain, until it would burst 
or rupture, the point of first fracture would be the co[)e part of 
the casting. 

I should like to hear of such tests being made ; for I do think 
it would result in opening the minds of many to an important 
factor in the casting of structural work, which is as follows : 
Where it is reasonable to expect dirt or jMrousness in castincjs, 
make that section thicker or heavier than the design woidd other- 
wise call for, in order to coxinterbalance the tveakening effect 
caused through the mingling of dirt or impurities with the iron. 

As to how much thicker the cope section of pipes or columns 
should be than the sides and bottom, this would be rather a dif- 
ficult question to answer ; as it would great!}' depend upon the 
combination of lengths, diameters, and thicknesses, and also 
facilities for moulding. However, I would say, that, with a 
pipe or column 12" diameter, f" thick, and fourteen feet long, 
one-quarter of its thickness added to the cope, as represented 
by the dotted line H in the column-section cut, would then 
not always be a guaranty of its holding its own in a testing- 
machine. 

In structural castings, the question of proportion, contraction, 
and qualit}' of metals, contains three very important elements 
that require careful consideration. But as my limited time 
would not allow me to now do justice to the discussion of them, 
I will close with the remark, that to figure for strength in cast- 
ings is one thing : to know if you have obtained it, is quite 
another. The former is the work of rules and tables : the latter 
is only assisted by observation, investigation, and practical 
experience. 

P.S. Shrinkage occurs when metal is liquid ; contraction^ 
when it is cooling off in a solid state. 



NOVELTIES IN EOrNDUY rUACTICE. 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

In the I^itcnt-Offioo buildin.ns at Wasliin^ton, arc many nov- 
rltios, some good and somk' of vcrv liltlc value. ^lany of them 
are applianees for mochaiiieal trades, and have been iieralded 
liefore the i)id)lic. In this line, the moulder's trade has not Iteen 
very prominent ; where!)}' the public have been led to believe 
that, to do moulding, no inventive talent was required. 

There are many tools in a foundry that at one time were just 
as patentable, and, in fact, far more so, than other things that 
have been patented. One reason why foundiy novelties are 
not patented to any extent is because it would not pay. The 
greatest novelties in foundry practice are generally got up for 
some special job, which, perhaps, is not made in a half-dozen 
foundries in the United States, and even those could generally 
invent other ways to accomplish the end if they desired. Even 
if a man has something novel, that every foundry could use, be 
could seldom make it i)ay to attempt its introduction : all would 
look, lint few would buy. They would look to steal the idea, 
from which, in many cases, they could get up something else 
to answer their j^rpose. 

"When a moulder gets up a new tool or rigging, he seldom 
thinks of getting it patented. There are some things in foun- 
diies that reiiuire the highest inventive qualities to originate ; 
and it is wrong to suppose, that, because the foundry is not 
extensively represented in the Patent Odice, no invention is 
required there. If thi' getting-up of something never before 
known is patentable, tlien there arc foundrymen Avho every 
year of their lives could be applicants for patent honors. 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY TRACTICE. 23 

There are many who patent things which eventnall}' they would 
be glad to give awa}^, in view of their experience at a later 
date. It is one thing to ^'■get up a patent,'' but quite another to 
get it introduced, and have it earn mone}^ for the inventor: at 
least, that was the author's experience when he Mas new at this 
patent business. 

Ever}' tool or rigging now used in a foundry was at one time 
more or less of a novelty. Many moulders seem to have the idea 
that the trade was originated as they found it, and that all that is 
reqtiired of them is to do as they see others do. The habits and 
customs of the shop in which the}' learned their trade are theirs : 
they get to think that there is only one way that a jol) can be 
done, and that is the way they were taught. AVhat a deplor- 
able condition the moulder's trade would be in, were there no 
exceptions to this rule ! 

Once in a while we come across men who are original. They 
have, to our views, odd ways of working ; and, if we are fortu- 
nate enough to be their shopmates for some years, we will often 
see them adopt new modes of working. Such a man cares 
nothing for tchat he teas taxight to do : to him it is only a step- 
ping-stone. Once under way, he begins to forget what he was 
taught to do, and commences to do that which he learns by his 
own experience and study. 

" "What is that John is getting up now? " says some one. 

" Oh ! something to draw the boss's attention," replies some 
jealous sore-head. 

Almost every advancement in a foundr}' is met with more or 
less ridicule. A progressive moulder is not always welcomed, 
but is often a target for abuse, especially when he starts in a 
new shop. It is astonishing how afraid some are of new-com- 
ers showing or introducing any novelty into a shop : no matter 
whether it is original or borrowed, if it is a novelt}' to them, 
tliey will try to ride it down. It is not only the men, but often 
the foreman as well, that will deride the iutroductiou of any 
new or stranjic feature. 



24 NOVKLTIKS IN FOUNDRY rilACTICE, 

A moiildcr, in trnvollincc to soo nnd loam, may po tlirongli a 
(lo/.i'ii .slioi».s, and sei- nt;tliini^ very new or hlraiigc in them. He 
may soe difFcrcnt classes of work made, Init, for all that, see 
notliini^ novel to liiin in the way it is made. It will seem as if 
one master tan^^lit them all. When first starting to work at the 
tia<U', we must be taught 1)}' others ; l»ut, should we wish to be- 
come leaders, we must keep it in mind that what we see done 
was not always so done, but was the result of the inventive 
and thinking powers of many men. That which others have 
given to us must be improved upon. Some one says we have 
nothing to accomplish; it has all been done. If this were so, 
thcn^ to the icriter's viind, the uncertainty that is attached to the 
making of good castings looidd be at an end. The novelties 
of the past have mainly been in the way of the introduction of 
appliances for making and forming moulds. The novelties of 
the future shoidd be fur the purpose of lessening the preseiU un- 
certaiutij in p)rocuring good castings. 

It would be a hard matter for a designer to make a pattern 
that could not be moulded by some one. If we look through 
a machine-shop, we can see castings of almost every conceivable 
form. These were made l)y some moulder ; but hoto many 
times some of them had to be moidded, in order to produce the 
one seen, is lohere the trouble comes in. Bad castings are often 
caused by the improper handling of material and tools, the 
proof of this being that the same man will often bring forth 
good and bad castings l)y the use of the same tools and mate- 
rial. 

To rightly handle inatcrials and tools, is not to be learned by 
ivatchiiig others. You must have practice, coupled with intelli- 
gent study, if you succeed. To intelligently study any subject, 
it is always a great assistance to know what others think and 
know of it. To accomplish this exchange of idi'as, there has 
lately grown u[) the novelty of foundry literature. There are 
men who scoff at this, who will before long sec their error, or 
be made to feel it, by the aihaueeuieut of others over them. 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY TRACTICE. 25 

There is a large field for the expansion of founchy literature, 
and whoever interests himself in it cannot but be benefited by it. 
The interest in tliis line is rapidly growing, being taken hold 
of b}' the best mechanics and workmen. The men that have 
originated the most novelties in foundry practice have been 
generally forced to do so through necessity. In out-of-the-way 
foundries, can often be found more real novelties than in many 
of our cit}' shops. Foundries that are far away from others 
cannot borrow or steal ideas : they are forced to use their own 
brains. There are seldom two men that plan the same, there- 
fore when moulders plan there must needs be variety. 

There are few moulders but would be able to improve or add 
something to our trade, if they would only make up their minds 
to make it a study. We should all try to make the trade better 
than we found it, and remember that the present attainments 
of our trade only come to exist through progressive thought 
and study. 



l!i; MKMAL AND I'llVSRAL UKVELOl'MENT IN MOULDING, 



MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IX 
MOULDING. 

TiiR art of moulding demands ])oth pliysical and mental 
labor, one being jis neeessary as the oilier. No one can become 
a good, reliable, expert workman at the business, unless lie is 
well endowed l)otli jiJnjsicdllT/ and vioiddlly. Physical endow- 
ment does not imply tliat the man shall be an athlete, or possess 
the strength of a giant. (lood liealth and a sound body are all 
that are re(juired in this respect. A man cannot do justice to 
his mental qualities unless he is well ph;/sicallt/. 

The i)hysical qualities of a man — strength, endurance, dex- 
terity — may be readily tested; but mental qualities are not so 
easily put to the test. Circumstances must bring a man to face 
some problem requiring thought and study, before he can de- 
monstrate his possession of the necessarj' qualities. Working 
at the trade of a moulder is well calculated to develop one's 
l)h3-sical powers, even in spite of himself; but whether iiis 
mental qualities are proportionately developed, will depend 
entirely upon his disjiosition to cultivate them. It may be pos- 
sible to drive the moulder into working hard with his hands, 
but it is impossible to drive him into studying and thinking of 
bis work. It might be better if this were possible. 

Bad castings are generally the result of mental errors. Hie 
hands cannot make a move towards making a mould, except they 
are guided by the mind; and yet but little attention is i)aid to 
the all-imi)ortant suljject of learning to think correctly. It is u 
good thing to be physically strong, but it is often a better thing 
to be mentally strong. 

If a man were to keep his arms lied up in a sling for six 
months, and then loose and try to u.se them, he would lind them 
weaker than before. Darwin says that the disuse of a niember 



MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOrMENT IN MOULDING. 27 

of the body will in a few generations cause its disappearance. 
Constant reasonable use develops the members of the body. 
How many can testify to a similar development of the mind by 
stud}- ? 

JNIanj' say they are not paid to think. Most workmen arc not 
paid as well as they would be if they thought more and better 
Mental qualities are, probably, to a great extent inherited ; but 
they are susceptible of cultivation, and to almost any extent. 

The greatest mechanical masters have become such by think- 
ing for themselves, and by studying others' ?}i«s/iaps, as loell as 
their oivn. 

A moulder may say, "What can I study that will advance me 
mentally? " Almost every bad resxdt in making castings can be 
taken as a lesson. Some of the lessons will be easy, others 
hard, but all important. In studying them, it may be neces- 
sary to visit libraries, consult the chemist, or ask questions of 
those who know more than we do. It may lead us to do things 
that others ivill consider foolish. Many of our greatest mechan- 
ical achievements spring from just such "foolish" things. 
An ambitious moulder can always find abundant material for 
study, not onlj' in his own mistakes .and poor success, l)ut in 
those of others. Many seem to learn only by their own blun- 
ders, while others learn equally from the blunders of others. 
If we learn onl}- through our own experience, our progress will 
be slow, and our life full of blunders. 

No mechanic should depend on his physical abilities. It is 
only by developing his mental qicalities., that he can hope for suc- 
cess. The early morning is unquestionably the best time for 
the workingman to study : his mind is then clear, and his 
thoughts will not be handicapped with the day's doings. An 
hour or two spent in this way every day will show astonishing 
results in the course of a year. If the morning cannot be 
devoted to this, then devote the evenings ; but, in any case, 
devote an hour or two each day to studying and reading up in 
the line of 3our business. 



•JS rKKI-KCTKiN IN MUriJilNf;. 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 

Pkufection ill moukling can only l»c reached tliroii":!! rij^ul 
attention to Irijli's. There is nothing grand, or, niechanieally 
speaking, great, abont making a mould. Close attention to 
small thhigs, a little delicate haud-v:ork here and there, zcith the 
exercise of good judgment., is all there is of it. If the end is 
successfully reached, it demonstrates that the necessary skill, 
judgment, and care controlled the manipulations. Whenever 
tlK; result is bad, the intelligent moulder can generally trace it 
to some trijle neglected. Trifles neglected leace chances to be 
taken., which is where luck comes in. Trusting to luck is like a 
lottery : you may win, but the chances are you will lose. 

There are often more castings lost through the neglect of 
trifles, than through ignorance, or the want of judgment. A 
large number of moulders of all classes take chances, and when 
they succeed it can be said that it is more good luck than good 
management. It is not alwa3's the poor mechanic that loses 
the most castings. There can be found plenty of first-class 
mechanics, having a large experience, who cannot be called 
reliable moulders. Their castings are generally lost through 
simple negligence, or in their being too willing to take chances. 
A careful moulder will alwaj's give a doubt the preference. If 
he is not sure, or feels that sxwy thing is not safe, he will, if 
possible, secure it bej'ond (juestion. 

In moulding, there are possibilities of l);id losults that one 
thoughtful moulder may not foresee, whicli another one woulil. 
Some mouldcis have to thank experience dearly bought for all 
their good results, while with others experience has but little to 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 29 

do with results. A good, careful jiulrjment is the secret of 
their success. 

There may be said to be two classes of trifles, — the known 
and the nnknoivn. When a casting is lost through tlie hitter, 
we can often charge it to ignorance, or the want of judgment; 
when through the former, to negligence. 

Whenever there is a new engine or machine to be built, the 
designers and builders malve it as perfect as their experience 
and judgment teach them. They will give great attention to 
the details ; and, when completed, the machine is given a trial. 
The first machine is seldom entirely a success. There are 
generally some little trifling tilings to be afterwards altered, to 
make it perfect. The designer or builder would not like to be 
told that he was ignorant, or had no mechanical ability, as a 
reason for the first engine or machine being imperfect. I^\))te 
of us are j^srfect : we must all learn by practical experience. 
In the building of new machinery, there is generally allowance 
made for the improvement of trifles. As the builder or de- 
signer requires trials of new work before it can be made perfect, 
so do the foundry manager and moulder require the same. 

Progress in foundry practice is being made every day, and 
the uncertainties lessened. Specialties in foundry practice are 
having an influence in bringing about better work. The advan- 
tages of those are numerous. In such shops, the moulder 
generally makes the same job over and over; and he must be 
a poor mechanic that cannot improve or perfect a single job 
in time. 

Ten years ago, almost every machinery foundry did a great 
deal of jobbing. To-day many of these shops discourage 
jobbing, and have adopted some special class of work, for the 
reason that the}- generally find more money in the manufacture 
of specialties than in jobbing. As a rule, foundries can nearly 
double their product by having specialties instead of jobbing, 
and with less requirement of skill. In jobbing, the first trial 



;'.<) l'Kin"H(TI()N IN Mori.DiNn. 

iimst 1)0 successful, to make tliiu<iH pjiy ; while with special! icR, 
if thfiv is a miss, Ihcic is a chaiici' to ivim-dy the h^ss in others 
tiiat follow. 

It is not always tlic moulder that is to Idame for his bail 
results. Jt may he the foreman's or proprietor's misman- 
a<^einent, and the manner in whieh they control their men. 
Wherever yon find a shop in vhich the men are not under good 
management and control, there yon will find the largest jiercent- 
age of bad ivork. A man, to be foreman of a f(jnndry, should 
not only be practical, but also have the l)est of judgment. He 
should l)e able to know what skill and experience an}' job will 
reijuire ; also, the time it should be made in, and the qualifica- 
tion of all his men. A foreman is very often to blame for the 
bad results, in not knowing the requirements of a job, and in 
giving it to a man that is not qualified. There are hardly two 
I'ounibies managed alike. One is run so that men are obliged to 
take chances ; another is run, leaving every thing optional with 
the men ; while, in another, no hiown chances are allowed to 
be taken. To discuss the reason for this dissimilarity, would be 
out of place. Suffice it to say that the class of work done may 
])(i the cause ; but, as a general thing, it is the management that 
is responsible. 

The best managed and controlled foundries are generally the 
ones that manufacture specialties. If foundries keep on drop- 
ping out of jobbing, and taking up specialties, as they now are 
doing, moulding must be advanced ; as the percentage of bad 
results will l)e less, and a better quality of castings made. 

Another thing that is helping to advance the moulder's trade 
is the interest which is being talen in foundry literalure. By 
this means, moulders can intelligently discuss others' ideas and 
experience of the science of the moulder's art, and thereby be 
better able to arrive at correct conclusions. 

The present demand of foundr3'men is for more first-class 
workmen. The foremen are themselves often to blame Ibr their 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 31 

scarcity. To have good workmen, there must be good, intelli- 
gent instructors and trainers. Tlie great trouble with foremen 
is, they do not want to be bothered. 

There are apprentices and moulders having the al)ility, that 
wish to be advanced ; and with proper discipline they will make 
good workmen, and be a help in getting rid of much of the 
uncertainty that is so largely attached to the present making of 
good castings. 



LOAM AXIJ DRY SANU MOLLl)i\(; 



GEOMETKY IN THE FOUNDRY. 

Is nearly all trades, sonic knowledge of jreometry is rcfjnirt-d. 
For the inouldiT, no one seems to have written up that whicli is 
apijlieable to his trade. Some may wonder wiiat moulders want 
geometry for ; and think, if we understand the use of shovel 
and rammer, it is all we need. This, in many cases, may be 
true. But often a knowledge of geometry can l)e turned to as 
good an account in our trade as in others. It is as essential 
that many moulders should understand geometry, as it is that 
pattern-makers should do so. The way it now is, the pattern- 
maker generally does our geometr}- for us ; and we, through our 
ignorance, arc forced to submit to other tradesmen, to our own 
detriment. In green-sand, as well as in loam work, moulders 
are often obliged to call the pattern-maker to explain or to 
mark out work that requires geometrical knowledge. ^Moulds 
are often made requiring the dividing of circles, or marking off 
of square, olilong, and other shapes ; locating of flanges, lugs, 
or sections of patterns, etc. The lack of geometrical kn(jwl- 
edge is often woful. I remember a case where a moulder was 
sent to bring a pair of trannnels, set to the proper length, in 
order to describe a circle : ujwn returning with a pattern seg- 
ment, when questioned, he said the pattern-maker was absent, 
and, as the segment was ujion his bench, he thought that wiis 
the thing wanted. 

To describe a circle is a simple affair. To divide one into 
any number of equal parts, is where a knowledge of geometry 
is found useful. The lunnber of parts into which a circle can 
be most readily divided is six; because the distance from the 

:',■> 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



33 



centre of any circle to its circumference, as B A, Fig. 8, will 
divide the circumference into six equal parts F^ Z>, A, P, E, 
and S. To divide the circumference into three, erase every 
other one of the six points. To divide it into twelve equally, 
divide each of the six parts. To divide it into four parts, 
describe a line through the centre, as /i 0, Fig. 9. From 
the points where KO intersects the circumference, with tram- 
mels or dividers set at more than two-thirds the diameter, 
describe arcs cutting each other, as at N, A line then drawn 
from N through the centre divides the circle into four parts. 





Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 

For eight parts, bisect each of the four. Many divide the circle 
into four parts by the use of a square and straight-edge, as shown 
at Fig. 12, instead of by describing the arcs as at N, Fig. 9. 

The division of circles into odd, or even equal, sections, can 
be done as follows. At H and jB, Fig. 10, the radius, or one- 
sixth of the circumference, is set off. This radius is then 
divided, by trial, into the same number of sections into which 
it is desired to divide the whole circle. With the trammels or 
dividers set to the chord of six of the divided radius points, 
shown in the radius // and 72, space off the circumference. 
This will divide the circumference, or circle, into the same 
number of sections as in the radius, which in radius H and R 
is seven. Should it fail to do so, the fault is yours. It must 



34 



CJKOMKTUY IN TIIK I'OINDICY 



1k' nincinlxTcd, Hint lo r.ra»7/y divide the (•ircmiifiiciicc rc(iuiri's 
vi'iy fine iii:ini|nil:iti()ii. 'i'licre an* Itiit few iiitii lliiil can go 
urotiiid the circU' twice, and eoine out exactly alike. 

Chords one-ninth, one-tenth, and onc-i'li-venth are simply 
shown to fnrther illustrate the rule. To divide the circle into 
liflhs, the radins is divided into live ; and, in order to have tho 

« 8 




3 3 

Fig. 10. 

six points, one is added to the radins length, as shown. If by 
this rule the circle were to be divided into four equal sections, 
the radius chord would be divided into four sections ; and, in 
ordiT to have the six points, two would be addetl to the chord's 
len<fth. 

For the divisions of circumference into small pails for the 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



35 



purpose of gear-making, etc., rules implying mathematical cal- 
culations, or tables, are required. The plan here given is sim- 
ple, and such as requires no figures, and can often be used by 
the moulder to good advantage, and as far as I know Is original. 
In loam-moulding, plates are required, that in the hands of 
some moulders will be made without any visible shape of pat- 
tern, while others will require almost a full pattern ; and the 
former will often mould up the work almost as quickly as the 




Fig. 11. — Cylinder Ring. 

latter can. There are some loam-moulders who can make any 
number of loam plates and rings, euth'ely from the drawings, 
and not have a mistake in the lot. To be able to lay out a lot 
of rings and plates, and have them all come right, requires one 
to understand the reading of drawings, and a few of the ele- 
mentary rules of geometry, besides souu(ijudg7nent. 

In marking out upon a sand-bed for any ring or plate having 
irregular shapes, a centre-line to work from is required, the 



36 



OKOMKTUY IN TIIK lorNDKY. 



same as tlio (lr;iii_iilit<iii;iii ic(iuin's in iiiakinjf a <lra\viii^. The 
cut showing a cylinilcr liiiu;. I'ijz. 11, will t<> many convey ideas 
of lavintj out that may l»e useful. The IteU ljein<j made, the first 
IhiiiLf doiu' is to drive a centre-stake, M. In this stake is made 
a small hole for tin- dividers' or trammels' point. Crossing this 
(•entre-i)oint is maiked the centre-line, AB. From this line all 
right-angled lines and measurements are taken. The circular 
lines ])eing described, the next to follow is marking and locating 
the lifting-handles, 2, 3, 4, and 5. This often requires careful 
consideration, in order that they may be placed in the best 
position to insure or assist the mould being bahineeil when 





Fig. 1 



Fig. 13. 



hoisted up. In locating lifting-handles upon square or round 
plates, they should, as a general thing, be set square with each 
other. This will be better understood by referring to the cuts, 
Figs. 12 and 13. In Fig. 12, the square and straight-edge seen 
show the manner of squaring-off the bed. The straight-edge 
having its edge over the centre, the square is set against it, so 
as to have it lie at right angles from the centre; the lines Z), 
E, and X are then described, the line E being only carried as 
far as the length of the square, after which the scjuare and 
straight-edge are removed. The straight-edge then being laid 
alongside of the line E, the line is carried through to F and E, 
thereby squaring-off the bed. 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 37 

111 Fig. 13, the lines OA and FB describe the true square, 
while the handles 1, 2, 3, and i are out of square. The objec- 
tion to such random making of handles is, they will not come 
plumb under the lifting-cross, which is usually made square ; 
also, handles thus placed upon rings, square or round plates, 
do not make them uniformly carry their load, thereby giving 
them a chance to spring, and cause the mould to crack. Some 
may say that they are often compelled to locate handles out of 
square, to make them balance their load. This ma}' be true in 
some cases ; but when possible, instead of distorting the square, 
the centre-point should be moved to where the best judgment 
points out will be the mould's balancing centre. 

To illustrate this idea, instead of having the cylinder-ring 
shown, p. 35, squared from the centre, square it from T. This, 
while it does not distort the square of the handles, will bring 
the balancing point wherever desired. 

Sometimes plates are required oblong. This does not alwa3's 
call for the handles to be set oblong. If necessary, handles 
can be set square upon an oblong plate as well as upon a round 
or square one, as long as the lines are at right angles to each 
other ; coming closer towards the centre does not alter the 
square. Of course, it is not here advocated to set handles 
square, at the sacrifice of oblong plates being sprung when their 
load comes upon them. The thing to he understood is, xohat is 
lest, and then to be able to do it. 

Improperly placed handles have been the cause of much 
trouble in adjusting and balancing moulds, and have caused 
many moulds to crack. This fault, and other faults, are not 
so much from carelessness as from the want of a little geomet- 
rical knowledge. There are but few loam-moulders, who, from 
a drawing, are able to order their sweeps, etc., and make the 
jobs required. Our trade demands something higher than loam- 
daubing and shovelling sand, and he who tries for the highest 
cannot but find himself benefited. 



nS MAKING CYLINDKIIS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO 
FINISH. 

Stkaai cyliiidcrs arc often .oonii)li(.'iik'il and (lilliciilt to mould, 
and when made they must be No. 1 castings. A Haw tliat 
would not injure many otlicr machinery castings will condemn 
a cylinder. A cylinder casting may look perfect, without a 
visii)le flaw or dirt-spot, l)efore l)oring or cutting into it; and 
yet when finished there may be flaws foun<l that will send it to 
the scrap-heap. Experience has taught the author to be rather 
shy of extraordinarily smooth-skinned cylinders. To be able to 
make a cylinder with such a surface, and at the same time have 
a perfect, sound, clean casting when finished, is an accomplish- 
ment worthy of praise. The way some get an extra-smooth 
skin is by pouring the cylinders with what might be called dull 
iron. This is a risky plan to adopt just for the sake of an extra- 
nice skin, as it is likely to sacrifice soundness for the sake of 
smoothness. 

A cylinder should be poured as hot as it jn'actically can be : 
the hotter it is poured, the cleaner and sounder it should finish. 
Cylinders are often poured with dull iron, for no other reason 
than that the moulder is afraid of his mould ; for, if the iron is 
hot, it may find its way into the vents of the cores, and thereby 
set the casting l)lowing, or it may cut or scab his mould. 
Again, he may l)e afraid of a poor joint, or the mould or cores 
may have been burnt in drying. These are the main reasons 
given for pouring cylinders with dull iron ; and, in some cases, 
the moulder is justified in considering them. By pouring dull 
he has less risk ; and, considering all points, he keeps the most 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 39 

chances in his favor, and trusts to luck for the machine-shop 
test. Some moulders can make a fine mould to look at, but the 
iron spoils it. A '•'•Jine mould " does not always insure a 
'■'■fine casting." 

It would be impossible to state the many reasons why cylin- 
ders are lost in casting. Sometimes the plan of making the 
mould is all wrong, and sometimes the moulder's manipulations 
are wrong. Some will gate and cast a cylinder contrary to all 
reason. There are many who can make a good-looking unfin- 
ished casting, but, when it comes to making a casting that shall 
be clean after the skin is removed, they are at fault. 

The science of making many sound finished castings can 
generally be told in a few maxims. First, make a mould that 
will stand fast and hot pouring; second, a casting gated or 
poured by underneath side or joint runners, or gates, had gener- 
rally better be gated or run as far as possible from the portion 
required to be finished ; third, put good feeders upon the heaviest 
jmrts of the casting, and supply them loith good hot iron until 
all the lighter j^arts are frozen up, and do not leave the heavy 
parts as long as the iron is liquid; fourth, study the science of 
making runners and gates; fifth, never forget that hot iron 
shoxdd make a sounder and cleaner finished casting than dull 
iron; sixth, remember that dirt will rise and lodge at under 
surfaces or xqyper portions of a motdd. 

In casting cylinders, there are two ways practised. One is to 
cast them vertically, and the other to cast them horizontally. 

A cylinder cast horizontally cannot be as sound as one cast 
vertically. In casting horizontally, more or less dirt will be 
caught and held by the under side of the centre-core, as shown 
at A, Fig. 14 ; and also in the cope, as seen at B. The autlior 
does not wish to be understood to say that good cylinders 
cannot be made by casting them horizontally. There are some 
films that turn out excellent cylinders that are cast hoi'izontally ; 
and, practically, they are as good for the purpose intended, as 
if they were cast upon their ends. 



10 



MAKISr; (VUNDF.RS AM) f'ASTINf;S Tf) KINISII. 



All olijfctioiialil*" f«":iliU(' ol" liDiiztmUil (•:i.stin<i is, tli:it fvc-ri if 
voii slidijld liavL- in tliu umU'r poilioii «»f the cori; sUx-k cuou^li 
to bore out :iiiy dirt, tla- ni>i)i'r portion of the cyliiidcr B will 
contain more or less invisible dirt, or the iron will n<jt l»e as 
dense as in the bottom jiortion ; so that, should the cylinder 
b(»re out clean, it cannot l)e as stroncr as if it had been cast 
vertically. Green-sand as well as dry-sand moulds are in- 
cluded in this statement. 




Fig. 14. 

In makinc: cylinders in green sand, it is rare that they are 
cast other than horizontally ; while with dry-sand moulds they 
arc cast in both ways. In loam they are always cast vertically ; 
at least, the author never saw or lieaid of one being cast other- 
wise. Smoother castings are generally made in loam than in 
dry sand ; and the smooUiness of loam-cast ings is not nearly as 
apt to he a sign of imperfections appearing during the machin- 
ist test, as in drj/sand castings. 

In i)ouiing any casting, there is more or less dirt acciimiilated ; 
if not from the mould, it will be from the metal. This tlirt does 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 41 

not always come to the surface of the casting, so as to be visi- 
ble : it may be just uuder the skiu of the casting ; and, again, it 
may penetrate quite a depth into the casting. The fluidity of 
the metal, and thickness of the parts cast, materially affect the 
degree to which dirt rises. Did the metal stay as fluid in the 
mould as when poured out of the ladle, the dirt would in time 
all rise to the surface ; but, as we know that metal commences 
to get sluggish rapidly as soon as it is in the mould, we must 
expect that the degree to which the dirt will rise to the upper 
surface will depend upon how fast the metal loses its fluidity. 

When a cylinder is condemned, the fault is not usually in the 
iron. The trouble is, there are places where there is no iron, — 
uotliing but dirt or holes. If, in the place of this dirt or holes, 
there were iron, the casting would not be condemned. If there 
are holes without dirt, the chances are ten to one that some- 
thing foreign to the iron caused them. If the iron is porous or 
honeycombed, the cause may be looked for in "mould-blowing," 
poor feeding, or badly proportioned sections that cannot be 
reached by iron to take the place of that which is drawn away 
to supply the shrinkage of other parts. 

Of course we have unsound and condemned finished castings, 
caused directly' by the iron, but not so many as are charged to 
it. Holes containing sand show a fault in the moulding. To 
keep these sand- or dirt-holes from appearing in sections that 
are not tlie uppermost parts of a casting when being made, the 
hotter the iron is poured the better. Hot iron will float and let 
dirt rise up through it quicker than dull iron. Of course we ■ 
cannot destroy the dirt or sand by using hot iron ; but by using 
it we are more sure of making the dirt go wherever there might 
be riser-heads, etc., placed to receive it. The pattern-maker 
knows, if any part of a casting is to be specially clean, he must 
make the pattern* to mould, as far as plans will permit, so as to 
hold no dirt on that part, as the iron rises up in the mould. 

In pouring moulds that are largely composed of crooks and 



4'2 MAKING J'YI.INDKRS AND CASTINGS TO KINISH. 

roll's, tluTO is always more or loss dirt <;('iii'rat«'il from tlu' 
iiioiild-siirface :i.s i\w iron runs over it; aii<l tlicsc vi-rv same 
crooks and cores may ')e so situated as to hold and catch dirt 
that we woiild litce to liave pass up into liiirher portions of liie 
mould. Cores and crooks could often he so placed as to catch 
dirt, and pn-vent it from getting to parts that re(iuire to be 
sound and cli-an. 

All unsound castings are not to be laid to the moulder. 
]\Iany patterns are made in such a way that the recjuired perfect 
l)arts cannot l)C insured. The recpiired parts to be finished 
should be so marked on the drawing, and before the pattern is 
made its construction should be based u[)on the best and surest 
way to make these parts sound. The foreman moulder should 
always be consulted in this, as he should know something of the 
matter. There are often little points, which, when examined by 
the moulder and pattern-maker together, can be made to the 
profit of all concerned. One great trouble with some of our 
foundry foremen is, that they cannot read a drawing, and so the 
pattern-maker has it all his own way ; and, when the pattern is 
al)out finished, the foreman can then advise how it should have 
been made. 

Returning to steam-cylinders : the most reliable way to cast 
them so that they will come jierfectly clean when ]»orcd is to 
cast them verticallv when practical. In pouring fnmi the top, as 
at /^ Fig. lo, there are two advantages over pouring altogether 
from the bottom, as shown at //. The first benefit is, that we 
have as hot iron filling the top portion of the mould as there is 
at the bottom. In pouring a cylinder all from the bottom, the 
iron becomes duller the higher it rises. In pouring cylinders, 
if we can run or gate them, so as to have the iron as hot in one 
section as in another, it is a good thing accomplished. Some 
may think that the |)lan shown of pouring the locomotive side- 
saddle cylinder is not consistent with the above ; but with a 
little thought, and close reading of the following, the moulder 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 



43 



will see that the principle is one worth remembering. The 
side-saddle part of tlie locomotive cylinder is often lillod with 
many crooked cores, and the thickness of iron around them is 



■'~>^>^'-^^^^^^^^^^^ 




far less than that around the cylindeiv centre core. By pouring 
the casting as shown at XX, the metal is admitted into the 
thinnest sections, from which it runs to the heaviest, thereby 



■\\ MAKINC CVI.INDKUS AND CASTINfiS 'in FINISH. 

jxivinii ii far mon' cvfii tiiiipciatiiii' all over tlic iiioiiM than 
wcif till' iron lirsl niii iiilo llic licavicst, ami all()\vt<l to How to 
the Ihiiiiii'sl, portion of the iiiouTil. 

It may slimiest itst'lf, tiiat, in pouring altogctln'r from the 
bottom, it wonlcl he better to have tlie metal enter as near as 
])ra('tical)le to the main bcxly of the cyliiuler, so as to p;et the 
hottest iron in tlu' part that must be dean. In this wav, it is 
true, you would ifet the hottest metal in tln' Ixxlvor tlie evlinder 
shown ; but there is nothing:; to arrest the dirt, which is apt to 
make the casting unsound where it should be sound. It must 
be understood that tlu^ cylinders shown were only jjoured 
through the gates at XX. The gates at //and /^ are given to 
show how cylinders having no side-saddle are often best poured. 

l?y pouring the saddle-cylinder through the gates XX. the 
liquid metal may be said to be filtered as water is by charcoal : 
theie being so many cores, and the metal in this portion of the 
casting being the thinnest, nearly all the dirt and scum are 
arrested, and do not enter the main body of the cylinder. So, 
even if the iron is duller when it reaches the main body of the 
cylinder, it is, at the same time, cleaner. In respect to 
the cylinder shown, the author can recollect making about 
eighty of them during the course of three years with success, 
by the plan of the gates XX, as shown ; although these cylin- 
ders finished up clean, it must not be understood that all side- 
saddle cylinders would turn out clean were they similarly gated 
or poured. It may, in some cases, be advisable to have a por- 
tion of the metal drop from the top after the bottom is well 
covered with the flowing-in metal. One of the benefits that is 
derived in p(juring from the top is, that the iron is all the time 
dropping upon the top of the rising metal. V>\ thus doing, it 
cuts up the dirt or scum in such a manner as to kci'p it ui)on 
the top, and keep it from gathering in lumps or rolling up 
against the side of the core or mould. In this way tlu- dirt is 
kept fioaling ui)on the U)[) of the rising metal, and thereby is 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 45 

brought np into the dirt-catcher, or riser-head, shown at W. 
Cylinders poured from the top generally have a rougher sJdn than 
those poured from the bottom, caused by the agitation of the 
rising metal against the mould's surface. They are also more 
liable to be scabbed and cut than those j^oured from the bottom; 
but nevertheless they will, as a general thing, finish up clean. 
It is often surprising how much a casting poured entirely from 
the top may scab, and still be clean when finished up. Were 
the same scabs upon a casting poured from the bottom, the 
chances are ten to one it would present so man}- holes as to 
disgust any one even to count them, especially if the casting 
were poured b}' having the metal poured in at the main body of 
the cylinder through a gate situated similarly to that shown at 
H. A cylinder poured from the bottom, to Jinish clean, must at 
least be free from scabs. 

The plan here shown of having a gate running down to the 
bottom of the mould, with top runners attached to it in order 
to pour from the top as well as the bottom, is often a good one 
for cylinders, as by it you can start slowly to cover over the 
bottom of the mould, after which the gates can be filled, and 
the metal be made to enter at the top as well as at the bottom. 
By first covering over the bottom of the mould, we prevent it 
from being cut by the falling iron. Some may say this is not 
necessary ; for how is it that long water or gas pipes can be 
poured altogether from the top, and yet the bottoms not be cut? 
In pouring such castings, the iron is prevented from falling 
directly from the top to the bottom by the thinness of the space 
between the core and mould ; the iron, in dropping, going from 
one side to the other, its friction decreases its velocity, and 
the force of its fall. When such thin castings are scabbed, it 
is generally the sides of the mould, and not the bottom. With 
cj'linders or pipes over one inch in thickness, the iron has a 
freer chance to fall directly upon the bottom, and thereby cut 
or scab it. 



4t) MAKINC; CYI.INDKUS AND rASTINfiS TO riNISII. 

('yIukUts siiiiil:ir to llic locomotive sulc-saiUUc ones, tli:it li:ive 
large foreij^ii altatlniients cast on them, are often belter east 
by having most of the metal g(j in at the bottom. Should such 
cylinders as these be poured altogether from the top, the sides 
of tile mould all the way \i\) would lie lialili' to be eut or 
seabbfd, or present a very rough body skin, caused by the agi- 
tation of the metal against the surface (jf the iiKJuld, and the 
length of time re(iuired for the metal to rise above any given 
point. The falling iron, instead of directly filling the body of 
the cylinder, runs away to fill up the side-saddle or the large 
attachments ; and in the mean time there is danger of the agi- 
tation of the metal, causing scabbing of the mould's surface. 
In jioaring any castings, the sooner the agitation of the vietal 
against the moukVs surface ceases, the better for the casting. 

With reference to the general plan adopted iu pouring cylin- 
ders in loam, they are usually poured from the top, while iu 
dry sand the reverse is true. Often in both instances the top 
and bottom methods are combined ; especially so when the 
cylinder is over four-foot stroke. There are other points aljout 
cylinders that require to be as perfect as the bore, some of 
which will be found iu the following article, "Moulding and 
Casting Cylinders." 

It might be well here to notice the question of unsound riser- 
heads. Many vertical-cast cylinders have, when their riser-head 
was cut off, presented a flanged surface full of holes, some of 
which are often larger than a marble. The writer recalls the 
ease of a foundry wIumc he worked, that had experienced nuich 
trouble from this cause. They had tried in every way imagin- 
able to stop the trouble; but when "working in the dark," 
there is greater liability of aggravating the difliculty than of 
remedying it. The whole trouble lay in having too large a 
corner at K, and t<Jo thin a riser-head. This corner, as is well 
known, is made for the purpose of allowing dirt to pass up into 
the riser-head. Now, when this corner A" is much larger 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 47 

than the riser-head, the latter will solidify first; then, if the 
body of the cylinder is still liquid, whatever metal is required 
to feed it will, of course, be drawn from the uppermost liquid 
portion ; so that the addition of the large corner K to the flange 
thickness must result in the accumulation at this point of a 
body of liquid metal far in excess of that in the lower adjoining 
body of the cylinder. There is no objection to a large corner 
at K, providing the riser-head is made thick enough to feed it ; 
but if the riser-head is not thick enough, then the cylinder 
should have feeding-heads made large enough to feed the cyl- 
inder, as shown above W. Many make a practice of not 
feeding their cylinders: they "flow them through" a little, 
and then trust to the riser-head to do the rest. In some cases 
this may work all right ; but the practice of putting on a large 
feeding-head, and feeding until certain the heaviest portion of 
the cylinder has solidified, will, in the end, cause the least 
trouble from unsound top cylinder flanges. 

The successful making of c^'linder castings is an art that the 
best men in the business have given much thought and study. 
Some have succeeded, while others have not ; and a thorough 
practical study of perfect cylinder-making will hurt no one, for 
its principles are such as can be applied to nearly all sound and 
clean-finished castings. 

In fact, there is this to say of studying up any special sub- 
ject in moulding, as in other mechanical matters : The informa- 
tion gained cannot be all charged against the job in hand, as 
it will not infrequently, and perhaps when least expected, be 
found of even greater value in some other direction. Knowl- 
edge has the advantage of almost unlimited application, and 
will render an equivalent for time spent in its acquisition. 



48 CLKAN VALVK rAtlvS. 



MOULDIXCr AND CASTIXG CYLIXDKRS TO 
PROCURE CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 

Two important considerations are involved in making cylin- 
ders : one is, that the casting shall be clean in the l)ore ; and 
the other, that the valve-face shall be clean. In the previous 
article, the subject was considered with reference to the bore of 
the cylinder. The object of the present article is to discuss the 
subject with reference to the valve-face. It is quite as impor- 
tant that the valve-face be sound, as it is that the bore be per- 
fect ; and, in considering plans, it is necessary to have both 
these surfaces prominently in view, in order that one may not 
be sacrificed to the other, which is often done. 

By casting a cylinder horizontally, with the face down, we 
are reasonably sure of getting that clean ; but the chances are 
that the bore will be dirty. By casting it vertically (properly 
gated), the chances are the most iu favor of the bore. There 
are plans, the adoption of which will often assist in getting clean 
faces on vertically cast cylinders, some of which will be referred 
to. There are many different kinds of cylinders, some of wliich 
are of a construction that makes it extremely diiricult, if not 
impossible, to i)rovide for having all parts perfectly dean and 
sound. The cuts here shown do not illustrate methods that 
are common, or generally employed, but new methods used by 
the author and others with good success. 

"When a cylinder is cast vertically, we generall}' find the lower 
cast opening the dirtiest ; this part of the face, as shown at A", 
Fig. IG, being the first to catch the dirt. B and A may catch 
some dirt, but it is not reasonable to suppose tlu-}' will catch as 



CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 



49 







50 CLEAN VAKVK-1 ACKS. 

niiicli us K. The juiiouiit of dirt thiit tlii" lower core or opcninej 
will oolli'ct (k'pL'uds upon how clean the mould is, and whether 
it seahs or not. When the lower portion of sueli moulds scuh, 
there is danger of extra dirt l)eing collected at K ; and, tchen 
there is any scabbing, it is generally in the loiver portion of the 
mould. This, in connection with the fact that tlie dirt is col- 
lected at K from a much larger area of the mould tlian it is at 
li or ^1, accounts for the part K being the dirtiest. Since it 
is apparent that dirt will lodge at K, the question is, how best 
to prevent it from injuring the casting. The cut presents two 
plans for doing this. In the first cue, the cavity in the lower 
port core (above K) is provided. This cavity extends the 
entire length of the core, and as the iron rises it floats or 
forces the dirt into this cavity. This being made purix)sely for 
a dirt-receiver, is cut oflf in finishing the cylinder. 

The second plan is shown at B. Here, instead of the cavity, 
we have holes passing through all the cores. "When the dirt 
comes up to the first core, it passes upwards through the others. 
The port core E shows a plan of the holes, Nos. 1,2, 3, and 4. 
Of course, the closer these holes can be made, the better the 
chances of the face being clean. 

At //is shown a plan, that, in some cases, might be used to 
advantage. It represents a false core, set for the purpose of 
catching dirt, thereby preventing it from rising up to K. The 
core is made dovetailing in order to hold Babbitt, or composi- 
tion, when the hole is filled. Instead of a core, a thin iron 
plate might be used, the advantage of which would be that it 
will be left in the casting, thereby avoiding taking off core- 
vents and lining up the hole with liabbitt, which, even if nicely 
done, would not leave as neat a face as the plate would when 
chipped off, for the plate would be placed below the projection 
of the valve-face, and there could be no damage done, even 
if the plate caused a chill around it. I have never heard of the 
above being used ; l)ut, as I see no reason why it should not 
work well in many cases, the idea is given. 



CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 51 

The reader will excuse betng carried back to the bore ques- 
tion. At D, the port core is shown to be kept back from the 
centre core. Generally, in setting port cores, they are set up 
close, or nearlj' so, as shown at T. When the upper port core 
is set, as at T, against the centre core, it is sure to catch more 
or less dirt, thereby making the bore of the cylinder dirty at 
this point. If the core is kept back from |" to |", it will 
allow the dirt to pass upwards into the dirt-riser. 

At XX are shown two ways of securing these ends, so that 
they cannot move when the mould is being poured or up-ended. 
This difficult}' of up-ending moulds is very often the reason for 
their being cast horizontally. A cj'linder moulded and cored 
horizontally requires to be well made and secured in order to 
safely up-end it to cast vertically. To set cores so they will 
not be disturbed by turning the mould upside down, or on its 
end, requires the practice of skill and caution ; for the least 
movement on the part of the cores will be liable to allow the 
iron to get into the vents. 

At the lower letter X, the core is shown chapleted up against 
the centre core. This presses it in the same direction that the 
metal will ; but, as it is already pressed as far as it can go, 
the pressure of the liquid iron cannot lift it farther. The upper 
letter X shows a chaplet at the back, placed so as to prevent 
the core from being pressed back. No. 2 represents a bolt for 
holding the core back against the chaplets X, in order that it 
cannot fall back and close up the opening D. Nos. 3, 4, and 7 
represent the print ends of the exhaust and port cores, tied so 
they cannot move out of their place. Where wire is used for 
tying such cores, it is better to use No. 18 wire doubled and 
twisted together. This gives a stronger and at the same time 
a more pliable tie than in the case of a single wire of the same 
diameter. 

At Nos. G and 8 is shown how chaplets are sometimes used 
between the exhaust and port coi-es, to assist in holding them 



52 CLKAN VALVi: lACKS, 

in |)l:if'c. Chaplots should never be set atiJiinst the centre core 
of a CN liiider. Wlieti thus set, tliey are likely to jtrocUiee hluw- 
holes in the bore of the eyliii<U'r; or they will make the iron 
hard around them, tlius providing for unequal wear or cutting. 
Cores can always be secured in some other way, by the exercise 
of a little judgment. This is equally true of the valve-face. 
The temptation to set chaplets against the valve-face, or to 
drive rods into it, should always be resisted. In making cylin- 
ders, iron that chills easily is generally used : therefore, when 
the iron comes in contact with chaplets, it frequently makes it 
so hard as to be worked with great difficulty. 

Having noticed plans that may be emi)loved for securing 
clean valve-faces on cylinder castings, it is proper to notice the 
objections to these plans. There is more inconvenience and 
risk in using cores, as shown at KB^ than there is in using such 
cores as ordinarily made, as shown at A^ for the reason that 
there is not so good an opportunity to rod and vent the former. 
The thicker, however, the cores are, the less the inconvenience 
and risk. The port and exhaust cores are about the most dilli- 
cult we have to deal with, and there are few that are capable of 
handling them. The plans I have described will often provide 
for making good cylinders, where there is trouble with the 
valve-faces. 

The right-hand figure represents a plan of casting locomotive 
cylinders that my stepfather, Andrew Baird, employed in the 
Portland Locomotive Company's AVorks foundry (Portland, 
Me.), a shop in which I served half of my six-j'cars' appren- 
ticeship. The cylinders were cast slanting to get a good face, 
the inclined position of the cores allowing dirt to be washed 
upwards. These cores were made as shown at A; my memory 
being quiekeiud in this respect from tiie fuel that tlircc or four 
of them were l)roken over my head because I allowed them to 
get burned. It may be argued that this way of casting is sac- 
rificing the Ijorc to the valve-face, but a little consideration will 



CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 63 

show that it was ahont equally dividing the chances between 
the valve-face and bore. The plan proved a success. These 
cylinders did not have any side-saddle cast on them, and they 
were poured altogether from the bottom. About six hundred 
pounds of iron flowed through, and ran down to the pig-bed 
W. This is something that should be done with most cylinders 
that are poured entirely from the bottom, as by so doing it 
assists in raising the dirt upwards, and helps to make solid 
casting, especially when feeding is omitted. 



54 CASTING WIIOI.H OK IN TAKTS. 



CASTING WHOLE OR IX PARTS, AND POINTS 
IN CYLINDER MOULDIN(L 

The making of the low-pressure cylinder for a marine com- 
l^ound engine, to be described, involves points which will be 
interesting to moulders and foundry managers. It is not so 
very far back, when, if one successfully cast a cylinder alone, 
much praise would be awarded. Some one, in order to save 
labor and receive more credit, cast the cylinder with one head. 
Another, to beat this, cast the cylinder head and cap together. 
To beat this, some genius will be trying to cast an engine com-i 
plete, — a thing which, from looking at some of our modern 
engines, seems nearly accomplished. The saving of making 
joints or connections in all classes of machinery is, at the pres- 
ent day, a point well worth studying. Many of our progres- 
sive machinery manufacturers are making im)u-ovements in 
this direction ; well knowing that the nearer wliole a machine 
can practically be cast, the cheaper it can be sold. Vty practi- 
cally, I mean where parts can be cast without causing excessive 
strains, and where the cost of moulding docs not exceed the 
expense of connecting the parts if cast separate. 

There are many cases where intelligently casting parts to- 
gether increases the strength of the whole ; and I think that 
casting the head and cap with the cylinder, as shown, is not 
only a saving in cost, but increases the strength of the body of 
the cylinder as well. The manner in which this cylinder was 
cast will, I think, be approved by practical men as being sim- 
ple, and as good a one as could be adopted. All the parting 
required is at ij B, Fig. 20. A plan of liie parting ring is seen at 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 



65 



Fig. 18 : the thickness of such a sized ring should be at least 2^". 
"Were it less than this, having such a load to lift, it would be 
very likely to spring. In green-sand work, moulds may spring, 
and do no harm ; but witli loam-work springing of moulds is, 
as a general thing, verj' injurious. Casting the head and cap 
up, brings the steam-chest well down towards the bottom. This 
assists in getting sounder and cleaner chest and valve oi)enings 
than if the cylinder were cast the other end down, as is some- 
times done. The reason of this is, that the higher the chest is 




K 40 J, Square sj 

Flan of Cap and Gates 
Fig. 17. 



Section through Chest and BeU. 
Fig. 18. 



from bottom of mould, the more area there is for dirt to be 
collected from ; therefore, the nearer the bottom the chest is, 
the less chances of its being dirty. 

Another point, which I think practical men will approve of, 
is the style in which the cores are constructed. As will be 
seen, the half-chest and port core is made in one piece. Gen- 
erally, in such cases, the chest core is made with prints into 
which the port and exhaust cores are secured, as shown in 
Fig. 19. By such a plan, there is, with the best of care, more or 
less danger of iron getting in the vents ; and still another objec- 
tionable feature to such a plan is the tendency of the valve- 



'.6 



CASTINfi WlKH.i; (iK IN I'AKTS. 



opciiiiii:-; to l>c cMst out of ii;ir:illfl. tli(Til>y often requiring 
niueli ciiiitpiiig to get llieui true, or [terliaits [treveutiug the 




intended width of port openings. The cylinder here shown, the 
author lately cast iu the Cuyahoga AVorks ; and it well illus- 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 67 

trates the advantage of making chest and port cores as 
described, when practicable. 

For convenience in handling and making cores, and also to 
save pattern-making, the steam-chest and belt cores were made 
in what might be termed half-core boxes. This will be better 
understood by reference to T T, Fig. 18. The belt core at B B, 
Fig. 18, has no prints ; this end being held in place by top and 
bottom chaplets, seen at P P, Fig. 20. The black squares on 
belt core, Fig. 18, represent chaplets, and show in what order 
they were placed above and below the core. The steam-chest 
core was held in place by chaplets at H and S, Fig. 20. The 
core iV, below F, was made independent of the steam-chest, and 
was the first core set. As it was to cut through to steam-chest, 
the opening made a very good bearing for the chest coi'e to 
rest upon. The lower half of the chest core being set, the 
next to follow was the belt core, after which the upper half 
of the chest core was set. In setting the halves of the chest 
core, care was taken to see that the valve-face portion was true 
and in line. Of course, had the chest core been whole, or not 
parted, as shown at T T, this care would not have been re- 
quired, nor the chaplets H and S needed. 

After these cores were set, as described, the cope, or upper- 
cheek portion of the mould, was lowered to place. Then a 
bolt as seen at TF, near Fig. 19, was placed in order to firmly 
hold the port core back against the chaplets. The belt core 
was then chapleted to hold it down : this completed the setting 
of these cores. After securing the vents, the next operation 
was ramming up the mould in the pit. This having been done, 
the mould was cleaned out, and preparation made for lowering 
in the centre core. The preparation consisted mainly in pla- 
cing the set screws as seen in the securing-pit at D D, the 
purpose of which is described in the article "Moulding a 
Jacket Cylinder," p. 60. Six short pieces of candles being 
lighted, and placed upon the bottom flange, the centre core was 



M CASTING WIIOIJ-: OK IN I'AItTS. 

tlicn lowcrcil into its print. ('I'lic in:iiiiior in wliidi this oore 
was lift('(l will he understood iiy " Ki'volvin^ Core ami I'ndrr- 
Surfacc Swcfpin*; " iirtick', p. (i'>.) The core havin<j; hi-i-n ad- 
justed to sliow ecjual space all around the top, by the use of 
four set screws D Z>, the space between the bottom phite and 
core rinjj, at 3f, was then securely packed with mud and bricks, 
in order to iirevent any chance run-out. After this, the eye- 
l)olt was placed f(n* the purpose of assisting in holdinji; down 
the core. The space F being now filled with moulding-sand, 
the G" core was centred and set. Twelve chaplets — three for 
each of the four cap cores — now being set, the cap cores were 
placed upon them in position to have their arms come square 
with the mould, and the outer circumference kept so as to give 
the r('([uircd tliickni'ss. Tliis completed the setting of all cores. 
A straight dry-sand cope was then set on, and the vent-holes 
made. Then, being closed for good, the mould was finished 
and got ready for casting. In making the chest and port 
cores, vents were formed, as shown at X, Fig. 20, which clearly 
represents the manner in which they are arranged. The vents 
were obtained by the use of straight rods, and the core irons 
were welded frames. The vents of the chest and port cores 
were taken off at the print end, the same as shown for the belt 
core at Y T. The belt core was vented by partly filling the 
space between the cast-iron pricked frames used for the core 
rods, as seen at A A, with fine cinders. By this plan there are 
no joint vents. This is something I always try to avoid as 
much as possil)lo. Taking otT vents through the joints of cores 
is always more or less risk}'. Hot iron is about as bad as 
steam for penetrating cracks or joints. 

In building up this mould, sweeps were used for the plain 
cylindrical portions, and patterns for the chest, etc., such as 
are ordinarily used. In building under the steam-chest, cinders 
were laid to carry off the vent from core N. Between the lower 
flange and steam-chest, rods were laid to assist the bricks in 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 59 

firmly holdins; the small body C. The body over the chest 
was held and lifted by being secured with the rods and plates 
shown. The style adopted in building up around the steam- 
chest was different from that generally employed : instead of 
oiling the pattern, and building it up in soft loam, the bricks 
were kept back about two inches from the face of the pattern, 
as shown ; and a drj'-sand mixture, similar to that which would 
be used for dr3'-sand moulding, rammed between the bricks and 
the face of the pattern, the bricks having their faces rubbed with 
a little wet loam in order to make it certain the sand would stick 
to them. This plan is us^. with much of our work, and it 
gives good results. With this explanation, the practical loam- 
moulder will be able to account for the building-iu of the rods 
over the chest and at C, as shown. 

In making the centre core, the brickwork being built up to 
the height showii, the top-plate, after being set on, was partly 
filled up with cinders, over which a mixture of dry sand was 
rammed to form the toj) portion of the core. The corners, 
GG^ are well nailed to assist in holding the projection seen, 
and to help prevent the falling iron, when pouring the mould, 
from cutting the sand. 

In pouring the cylinder, we let about two thousand pounds 
go in at the bottom gate, shown by dotted entrance Z, Fig. 20. 
When about fifteen hundred pounds had been poured in, we 
then started pouring in from the top, through the eleven gates 
shown in plan, Fig. 17. The size of these gates was |"xl|". 
At K is represented the feeding-head, which was placed over 
the steam-chest side. The casting did not present any scabs 
or sand-holes : the skin was a dark-blue color, and as smooth 
as a piece of stove-plate. This cylinder is not shown to repre- 
sent large work, but simply because its making involved points 
thought to be of a;eueral interest. 



liU MOULULNG A JACKKTKI) CVLINDKK. 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 

At till' left of the engraving (Kig. 21) is shown a section of a 
jacketed cjlinder, ^vhich will l)e recognized by the practised 
moulder as being a somewhat difllcult casting to make. The 
outside of the casting is a simple affair enough ; the dilficulties 
being confined almost entirely to the centre core, which is shown 
in section on the right, together with the sweep and other ac- 
cessories used in its making. 

In making the mould, the outside was made first, not l>ecause 
it is customary to do so, but because we had to luiild it up and 
dry it in n pit, from a lack of oven-room. At K is shown 
the bottom plate ; also a holding-down hook, of which there are 
four. The plate was set on a solid sand foundation ; and, in 
order to leave a pit below, a cast-iron ring F was used. This 
pit was required to provide room for a man to operate screws 
for centring the centre core, as will be explained farther on. 

In making the outside mould, there were five G" round blocks 
distributed so as to equally divide the circumference, for 
making vent-holes, as at H. At Y is represented a plate 
placed upon the top of the mould to stiffen and hold the brick- 
work together. After the mould was finished and blacked, it 
was then prepared for diying by laying four railroad-bars 
across, so they would rest upon the pit about 4" above the top 
of the mould. On top of these were placed sheet-iron ])lates, 
and the open portions of the pit, between the rails, were biicked 
up to prevent the escai>e of heat. Charcoal and coke were used 
for drying, the charcoal lieing on the outside and the coke on 
the inside. For the first twenty-four hours, there was a fire 




l>i.itional } iLW vf Mould 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 61 

upou the outside only, because both fires would, at the begin- 
uing, have beeu likely to blister the mould. The coke fire was 
made in a perforated boiler-iron kettle, about 18" diameter 
and 24" deep ; the kettle having an open top and fire-grate 
bottom, and being let down until the top of the fire was about 
even with the bottom of the mould. 

The pit was originally some fifteen feet in depth, having been 
made for other purposes, and then filled up so as to be eight 
feet deep. The bottom of the small inner pit F was three feet 
below the bottom of the large pit, the diameter of the small 
pit being 42". The diameter of the large pit was 13 feet. 
Upon the bottom of the large pit, a boiler-iron curb was placed. 
This was to make the pit smaller at and towards the bottom, to 
confine the fire, and also to save work in ramming up. The 
distances of the mould from the pit, given in engraving, are not 
the actual ones, but are those it would be desirable to have for 
convenience of operations with such a mould. 

It may be asked, Why, if there is room enough at the bottom 
of the pit, should it not be made the same size at the top ? 

In answer, it may be said that the sand requires harder ram- 
ming at the bottom than at the top of a mould, and sand can 
more readily be rammed solid in a small space than in a large 
one. Besides, while it is practicable to ram the small space at 
the bottom, if this space were continued to the top there would 
not be room to work to advantage. 

In fitting up old pits for drying moulds, where a natural 
draught cannot be had, a blast-pipe may be laid all around the 
bottom, having a branch E passing up to the top, through 
which connection is made with a blower or fan. The 4" brick 
wall seen upon the outside of the blast-pipe E is the pit's wall. 
"While it is only shown as of a small height, it is, of course, to 
be understood that its depth is about the height of the mould. 

In firing up on the outside of this mould, six to eiglit bushels 
of charcoal were evenly distributed ou top of the blast-pipe /iT, 




Srctiunal ficur of CiUttmg 



RejuUi li ftj Scrrip ) ■^' 

Sectional Vino of Mould 

Fig. 21. 



{]2 Mon.DlNf; A JACKKTKI) ('YI,IN1)I:R. 

which had siiiall holes ])ore(l in it. The fire was started \)y 
throwing hot coals on the charcoal and pntting the Mast on. 

After the fire was well under way, the blast was shut off. 
The inonld was uncovered every twenty-four hours, and fresh 
fuel adiled, until it was found to he dry. 

In making the centre core of this mould, tiie sweep was in 
sections, so that parts could be detached as required. 

In commencing, the sweep was secured to the arms A and J{, 
as shown. The bottom plate having been levelled and centred, 
tile core was then built up t<i a point indicated by tiie figures 2.'). 
The first section of the sweep was then temporarily removed, 
and the plate 20 put on. 

The space between the prickers 3 and was packecl with 
bricks, with a good layer of cinders under them. Bricks 27 
were then built up, after which this portion was loamed up. 
The first section of sweep was then permanently removed, and 
the arm B moved up to 4. The core was then bricked and fin- 
ished up to the joint 28. The lower tying ring 29 was then set 
on, which was done without removing the top spindle-arm, 
because of the opening in the ring seen at the top in the left- 
hand side of the cut. The ring being in place, a small sweep 
at 30 was bolted to the arm, and a level joint swept up. This 
sweep was then taken off, and the second section of sweep 
unscrewed and taken off permanently. The bottom bed, 8, 
was then covered with parting sand, over which was placed 2" 
of moulding sand. This was done to protect this part of the 
mould from pieces of brick and from wet loam, liable to fall 
when l)uilding tlie ujjper part of the core. 

Ill the next operation B was moved up to 3, and after being 
bolted the sweep was run up above the joint. The top spindle- 
arm being removed, the joint lifting ring 31 was lowered by 
the crane to place, there being three jiins, one of which is 
shown at 32, for guides. The sweep was then let down to 
place, and the top arm secured ; the collar 33 not having been 
moved, the sweep was necessarily in the correct position. 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 63 

The core was then built and finished up to arm 3, the third 
section of sweep taken off, and arm ^1 moved up to 1 , and arm 
B up to 2. The core was then built and loam-tinished up to 
34, the fourth section of the sweep taken off, the top arm 
removed, and sweeps and arms A and B taken off the spindle. 
The ring 35 was then set on, the arms and sweep reset, and 
the top arm secured ; then the ring 35 was centred. The fourth 
section of the sweep was then reset, the bottom "being omitted. 
The under and side portions of 35, as at 5, 6, and 7, were now 
swept up or loam-finished. 

It may be here stated that ring 35, before being set, had the 
space between the prickers packed with brick, and the surface 
daubed with loam, the whole being dried in the oven. This 
provides a body for absorbing moisture, making the sweeping 
at 5, 6, and 7 practicable. 

The underneath sweeping being completed, the fourth section 
of the sweep was permanently removed. Arm B was now car- 
ried up close to A (which, it must be remembered, is now up 
at 1 ) , and the remainder of the core finished. 

The location of the top arm should be higher than shown, 
to allow of completion of the core without further moving-up of 
the sweep arms. 

In building and finishing the portion above 35, a layer of 
cinders was used on top of the plate. The dotted lines, extend- 
ing from X to 5, show the position of runner gates, built about 
15" apart. X represents a basin made when building the upper 
part of the core. At 36 a ring plate is represented, which was 
used for the purpose of giving support and a body from which 
to wedge down the core in getting ready to cast. The com- 
pleted core was then parted, and after the joint was finned and 
finished it was placed in the oven to dry. 

The sectional view shows the mould closed, to be prepared 
for casting. In starting to close, the centre core was lowered, 
a section at a time, into the mould. Then by four regulating- 



r. I MOULDINfJ A JACKKTKI) CYLINDKK. 

sorows, one of wliich is shown at tlu' 1>ottoni plate, the core was 
adjusted to show equal space all around the riser-head 6'. 
After the core was centred, the space between the plates, as at 
37, was carefully and solidly packed with brick and loam, as a 
safeguard against run-outs. 

At 3.S and .'{'J are shown a ])lan and section of nuts for the 
rciiiilating-screws. Tlie two views, .S'.', show a Itlock with a 
conical hole to allow the point of the screw t(j ni(jvc. thereby 
preventing throwing the bottom of the core out of tiie centre of 
tlie mould when clear of the print. After the bottom j<^int 
had been secured as described, the upper section of core from 
r.i was hoisted, and all the side chaplets 41 and 12 set. There 
bemg five cores to set so as to leave a thickness of iron 
between them all, the chaplets required to be divided equallj*. 
The bottom chaplets, shown at 40, were set in an iron stand, 
which fits into still another stand that is cast with plate 20. 
This plan makes the moving of chaplets impossible. The 
chaplets had f" stems, with plates 4" x G", and for each core 
three bottom chaplets were used. Four side chaplets were used 
for the back or each core, two of which are shown at 41 and 42. 
A half-inch bolt, as at 43 and 44, was used to hold the cores 
against the chaplets. At 45 is represented a vent-hole con- 
nected with cinders, and at 4G a tube -H" diameter, with the end 
tapered to lit tightly in the core vent-hole. The space //, be- 
tween the tube and mould, was rammed all around with sand 
to prevent the metal getting mto the vent-tube. At 47 is a 
[)late 3" wide, V' thick, and 18" long, placed m the core, when 
being made, to give support to the bolt-head 43. The space 
in front of the bolt-head was filled with beer-sand, and made 
level with the surface of the core. 

The cores being secured, the next operation was to airange 
for chapleting down the cores, as at 48, which was done as fol- 
lows : On top of each core, three clay balls were set. The 
upper jointed section of the centre core was lowered down, its 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 65 

joint being at 49. This section was then hoisted, and cbaplets 
were made ^^" shorter than each elay ball measured. All the 
clay balls were numbered, and only two or three removed at a 
time, so as to insure against getting them mixed, as any blun- 
dering in this respect would probably result in losing the cast- 
ing. When all the chaplets were placed upon the exact spots 
previously occupied by the clay balls, and a little flour put on 
to insure their touching, the upper section of the centre core 
was lowered to its place, after which the riser-head S was 
covered with segment cores, as at JST. The runner-basin X 
was not covered over as represented, until after the core was 
dried. The segments covering cores 51 were dry when set ; but 
in order to dry out the course of loam and bricks at 50, the 
core was given one night's firing, to expel any dampness the 
course of lirick 50 might contain. 

At 52 is shown an iron ring, used in combination with 36 for 
wedging down the core against the high-head pressure. 

The pouring-basin had one runner gate, 4" diameter, leading 
to basin X, as seen at 53. The cylinder weighed a little more 
than eight tons ; there being flanges that are not shown, as they 
would serve to confuse the subject. The whole mould was 
secured by a cross-beam and slings, chains coming down to 
four hooks, one of which is shown at K. Enough iron was 
poured in at the bottom of the mould to fill it above 40 before 
any was poured in at the top. After the mould was poured, 
and sufficiently cool, the basin X was uncovered, and the basm 
iron broken up to assist the shrinkage as much as possible. 
The casting, when finished, was clean and without perceptible 
flaw. 



t;0 UMVOLVINC; COKE AND UNDEU-SUIIFACE SWEKPINO. 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE 
SWEEPING. 

Ik vol. i., p. 187, is an illustrated article upon "Sweeps 
and Spindles." The engraving shown is that of a rigging for 
nnder-loain surface sweeping. Loam cores arc often of such 
shape that some such rigging is almost inilispcnsahle. Having 
in our foundry a very siini)le arrangement, that is not only 
ada[)ted to under-sweeping, but to other purposes as well, and 
which is in some respects superior to the rigging previously 
shown, it is thought a description of its workings ma}' be of 
value. 

The advantage of this rigging over the common run of spin- 
dles could seldom be better displayed than in making the con- 
denser core seen in Fig. 23. The spindle is so designed, that 
after the core is swept it is then hoisted by the same spindle, 
as shown in Fig. 23. This spindle having a collar F, and a key- 
hol(! (r, Fig. 24, provides for securing to it any i)late or ring, as 
seen at // and A", Figs. 2.3 and 2G, "When the ring K is wedged 
up tight against the collar, by the keys 3/, the buildiug founda- 
tion of the condenser core is formed. 

The steel pin N being set in the step P, the spindle is then 
set up and secured by the top centring and holding-arm R. 
This arm is so constructed that it can in no way be sprung. 
The elevation and plan view of arm show its construction in 
outline. After the spindle has been secured, the next opera- 
tion is that of securing the sweep. 

In setting the sweep, an arm is bolted to steji P. as seen at 
V' (The cap of this arm is not shown, in order to show the 




BB 






Stationary Stitep and lUiolung Core 



Spindle Ste2> and Steadying JUgying 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 67 

step and steel pin more fully.) This arm is set so as to be 
parallel witli the top of swee[)-liolding- arm Y. The manner of 
bolting the sweep to this arm is more fully shown at AA, in 
plan of arm. The bottom of sweep being secured by the bolt 
liB, and the sweep found to be gauged right, all is then ready 
for buildiug up the core, which is done as follows : Pieces of 
bricks being built up as high as No. 2, a thin cast-iron ring is 
then laid on, after which the core is built up to No. 3, the plate 
there shown being then laid on ; bricks are then built up, and, 
the two plates at No. 4 being set, bricks are laid up to the end 
of the core, on top of which is a ring No. 5. This is used for 
the purpose of bk)cking upon, to hold down the core when cast- 
ing. The inside of the core was filled with clean, small cinders, 
lightly rammed, as it was built up. The core, being completed, 
Avas hoisted up and lowered on a plate FF, Fig. 23. On this 
plate was set an iron ring BB: this was packed with sand. 
The bottom of the spindle, where it projects through the plate 
FF, was clasped by a cap having laps as seen at KK. This 
being firml}- bolted around the spindle, the core and its attach- 
ments were then hoisted and set on the oven carriage. While 
many m.ay never have such a core to move, the plan shown will 
no doubt be worth remembering, for the principle is applicable 
to other work. 

This condenser core is one which practical loam-moulders 
will concede to be rather a difficult core to make. Had the core 
been larger, ]^\e risks in making it would have been greatly 
lessened. The form of the casting made with the above core 
is seen in the section, Fig. 22. The outside portion of mould 
was jointed in two parts, at the respective heights A and B. 
The casting was run entirely from the bottom, the metal going 
in through two gates at the flange C. At D, upon the riser 
head, is a feeder. The situation of the gates will, of course, 
show that the mould was cast verticall}'. The dots at E repre- 
sent the print, which was swept in the mould for the print seen 



CS J:i:VOLVlN(i C'OUK and I'NDKR srUI'ACE SWKKriNO. 

on core lo set into. This fjiiidcd and centred the Ixtttoni. The 
top was held (•ciitrally !•}' ihri-c d<jul»li'-hi'aded chaplels, phieed 
in tlie riser head portion. 

For sweeping nj) ontside moulds, we use revolvinjj; spindles. 
In their ends is a ht)le, so that they can be worked upon the 
same step as the spindles here shown. In sweepin<^ the moulds, 
the si)indle and sweep revolve, the mould remaining stationary. 
In these spindles there is what some would call a key-seat, run- 
ning the entire length. A i)lan of the arms, which are used 
with these spindles, is seen upon the left, at Figs. '2H and 29. 
The steel projections, shown in black, fitting into the si)indle'8 
key-slot, cause the arms to be exactly parallel to each other 
when two or more arms are used. This little wrinkle is one our 
president oiiginated. We find that it saves lots of labor in 
setting swcei)s, and it also makes a certainty of obtaining true 
vertical lines that by the old method are laborious to be ()l>tained. 

As a general thing, loam-cores are swept by having the sweep 
revolve. I doubt if there could lie found six foundries in the 
United States that do not follow this practice ; in fact, so far 
as I know, our shop is the only one that makes a practice of 
sweeping cores with stationary sweeps, as shown. The plan 
was established long before I ever saw the shop ; and, as I find 
it a good one, it is still used. The advantage of having the 
sweep stationary is, that the core is certain to come to whatever 
diameter the sweep is set to ; also, there is no raising or lower- 
ing of spindle-arms to clear the brickwork as it«is built up. as 
is often necessary when the core is stationary and the sweep 
revolves. Having cores come larger or smaller than intended, 
or one end not right with the other in size, is no uncommon 
occurrence. Having to change the position of the arm, as is 
often necessary with revolving sweejis in sweeping long cores, 
one is apt to move the sweep ; and as the brickwork is more or 
less between the sweej) and spindle, there is no handy means of 
ascertaining it. We^of course, can cali^ier the core after it is 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 69 

swept up ; but to then change the sweep's diameter is often 
objectionable, for loam scraped off or put on in thin layers }nay 
cause surface scabs. I might sa}^, "• Sweep only two small 
spots to test the diameter, then, if found right, sweep up the 
core." This, in manj- cases, is a good plan, and should be 
practised when exact sizes are wanted. But, as a general thing, 
wlieu a moulder sets the sweep, he thinks of nothing but driving 
ahead ; and if the core is not found to be the right size when 
set into the mould, he often can easily make himself and others 
believe that the right sizes or gauges to set the sweep by were 
not obtained. 

In our shop, all cores are calipered with long, wooden-legged 
calipers, simply to make sure that our gauges or measurements 
were right when setting the sweep to sweep them. Our presi- 
dent, J. F. HoUoway, is very particular in knowing that all 
parts have the thickness the drawing calls for ; and, did they not 
come so, an intelligent reason would have to be given. 

Did the receivers of swept-up loam-castings know how often 
the intended thickness is increased or decreased in the castings 
tliey receive, they might be surprised. In jobbing loam-work, 
no one can, da}' in and day out, sweep all his moulds so as to 
measure to ^V of what the draught calls for. As little as -^^" 
off or on a thickness is but a small matter with the general run 
of work ; but when it comes to adding or subtracting from \" to 
•|", the value of establishing ways of insuring correct thickness 
is seen. "While the cores generally need the most attention, 
the outside part often requires measuring to insure correctness. 
A good plan to insure the thickness wanted is, to take the size 
of the first part swept upon a narrow stick when the mould or 
core is finished or blacked ; then, when sweeping the second 
part, gauge the mould or core, as the case may be, by the meas- 
urement taken from the lirst part. By this means, if one does 
not get the first part the size called for, he has at least a 
chance to insure obtaining the proper thickness. 



70 UKV()I.VIN(i CORK AM) UNDKU-SUUl'ACE S^V1•:K^I^•0. 

A third a(lvanta«;c the i)hin of swoepinp; shown has ovor the 
R'volviiiii swci'|) is, that the inouUhT can stand still ; therehy 
savin;^ hihor and the making of a eircus-pedfstrian of himself. 
A straiitjer to this plan would he snrprised to see with what 
ease heavy cores can be revolved. Cores as large as nine feet 
in dhimeter, and seven feet high, have been swept here by 
revolving them. For heavy or high cores there are two plans 
shown in Fig. 25, one of which it is sometimes found necessary 
to adopt in order to steady the core when l)eing swept np with 
loam. One of these is to use steadying-bolts, as shown, or 
swivel-screws. Three or four such bolts or screws may be 
used, niiiniiig from the bottom ring up to a top-steadying flange, 
as shown. This is a good plan to adopt for cores of large 
diameter. The brickwork seen inside of these bolts is to rep- 
resent a' high core being held steady In' a top brace bolted to 
the spindle, as seen at /S, and then wedged. Such braces are 
generally required when cores 18" to 72" diameter are longer 
than four to Qve feet. It should be remembered that the braces 
are not used during the bricking-up of the mould, but only 
during the rubbing-on of the loam. It keeps the core rigid, so 
as to assist in its being swept true. The size of the spindle 
given, Fig. 25, is that for cores ranging from four feet up to 
nine feet diameter. The spmdle at Fig. 24 is for work under 
the above sizes. 

The floor-level and pit marked shows how we use the arrange- 
ment. A pit of the dei)th shown is very handy for our general 
run of work. The diameter of the pit being about ten feet, 
there is room to walk around. The mud and bricks are kept on 
the floor, so that, in flrst starting to build, there is no stooping 
clown to reach material. Then, when the core is built two or 
three feet, the pit is readily planked over to enable reaching np 
higlier. The pit was originally made in order to jirocure more 
height for hoisting : of course, where the crane is high enough, 
one could dispense with the pit if it were desirable. Before 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 71 

removing the top arm for placing on plates, or to hoist the core, 
it is generally necessary to have the under side of core blocked. 
For this purpose wooden horses come very handy. The one seen 
at Fig. 30 will be suggestive of how they may be placed. Fig. 
27 is a plan view of //, Fig. 25. The long arm X is attached, 
simply to show that the same rig can be used for larger cores, 
by extending the lugs. It was by such a rigging that the centre 
core shown in the article upon "Casting Whole or in Parts," 
p. 5G, was made and lowered in the mould. When the core 
was trued by the set-screws there described, the keys at TT 
were taken out ; and after this, those at W, which let the plate 
H fall down to the bottom of the pit. The spindle, now being 
released, was hoisted out, and the hole in top of the core filled 
up as there described. For that job the 3" spindle was the one 
used. 



72 SWEEPING GllOOVEU-CONK URLMS. 



s\vi:i:rixG orooved-coxe diu'.ms. 

TiiK inac'hino sliowii (p. 73) is intc'ii(U-d for swc'cpiiiji cither 
right or left liaiul grooved drums of cyliudrieal, couieal, or 
curved shape, and of any pitch desired. 

The originator of this device, S, B. Whiting, M.E., of Potts- 
ville, Penu., first used it in ISGT or I'SGH, since which time a 
great number and variety- of grooved drums have been reported 
as made with it. At the right arc sections of what were no 
doubt very large cone-castings to make. The one in Fig. 32 was 
of twelve and twenty feet diameters, with a height of about six 
feet. Our trade is under obligations to Mr. Whiting. Among 
our best moulders, but very few have any knowledge or idea of 
cone-drum sweeping ; and upon reading this many will, like the 
author, feel like tendering Mr. Whiting thauks for allowing the 
publication of his device. 

The engravings are from photographs taken from a model, 
therefore the proportions will differ somewhat from those of a 
full-sized working machine ; and, while to many the three views 
will give a clear idea of the machine, there are those for whom 
it might be well to give a detailed descrii)tion. 

A, Fig. 33, is -a spindle that is held stationary in the base. 
Fitted to work upon and around this spindle is a sleeve A". To 
guide and hold the arm E at a right angle to A", is the cross- 
head centre P. The arms R and X are firmly secured to sleeve 
A", and therefore will cause the latter to rotate around the 
spindle A when operating the machine. The cross-head P 
slides up or down upon the sleeve A", being controlled in its 
motion by the screw D. The bar E (carrying at its end the 
former or sweep F) slides in the cross-head guides SS, and is 
controlled in its movements, lengthwise, by the bar or former 



SWEEPING GROOA^ED-CONE DRUMS. 



73 



r, which may be set at any angle, and may be straight, curved, 
or of au irreoular form. The gear H being fast to the spindle 




S.Ji.\yhitiny^s 
me Drum Sweeping Macliine 



A, the screw D will be turned whenever the bar E is swept 
around the mould. By changing the gear on the screw D and 



74 SWEEPING GROOVED-CONK DUTMS. 

spindle ^1, iuiy pitch may l»e obUiim-d ; and, liy inKcrtinjx t-ithcr 
one or two inteiinediato {rears, a riglit or left hand pitcli may 
be ol)tained. The opposite side-view of Fig. IV.i is shown in 
Fig. 34. As will be seen at iV", the bar E is there guided, as 
well as at SS^ Fig. 33. Fig. 35 is a plan view of the interme- 
diate and principal gears. As there are four wheels, the nse 
of the two, 1' and il/, may not appear plain. These gears ( Y 
and M) neither increase nor decrease speed, but are simply for 
making cither right or left drums or pitches. Were wliccls 
required for one-hand sweeping only, then these gears would 
not be required, nnli'ss the centres A and V were so far apart 
that they were neccssaiy to transmit motion. 

As shown, the intermediate gear J/ is the one engaged with 
the large wheel //, and will produce a right-hand drum or 
pitch. To produce a left-hand drum, the thumb-screw ir, 
Fig. 34, is loosened, and the gear Y is made to engage direct 
with the large wheel H and pinion V. 

The screw D should, according to the diameter of the mould, 
be set to balance the bar E, in about the relation to the centres 
between the sleeve K and bar T, as here shown. In other 
words, the screw D should be set so as to balance, at an aver- 
age, the bar E in its up or downward movement. 

When arranging gears for moulds of large diameters, the 
gears Y and J/ could, to save using a large centre-wheel and 
pinion, be reversed so as to stand between the pinion V aud 
large wheel H. To make an opposite hand drum, the two 
pinions would require to be replaced by three smaller ones. 
For making small-sized moulds of right-hand pitch, only the 
gear //and pinion F may be required. 

In liguring the relation of gears to give desired-sized moulds, 
the pitch of the leading screw D will be the regulator. As an 
example, we will suppose the leading screw D to have ^" pitch. 
(IJy pitch is meant that every time the screw revolves once, the 
thread would cause a nut to rise in height i".) Now, suppos- 
ing there was to be a cone made having a 2" pitch, as seen in 



SWEEPING GROOVED-CONE DRUMS. 75 

section, Fig. 36 : the arrangement should be such as to cause the 
sweep F^ Fig. 33, to rise in height 2" every time the sweep 
revolves once. Knowing that the leading-screw rises \" ever}' 
revolution, the gears must be made so that, in every revolution 
of the sweep, the leading-screw will revolve four times, in order 
to raise the sweep 2" in one revolution. Now, knowing that 
the leading-screw pinion V must revolve four times in order to 
raise the sweep 2" in one revolution, it will be seen that the 
large wheel H must contain four times the number of teeth that 
the pinion has ; therefore, if the pinion has, say, twelve teeth, 
the large wheel must have forty-eight teeth. 

Did one wish to make a mould having grooves of 3" pitch, by 
using the same ^" pitch leading-screw, the gears V and H would 
require changing so as to cause the pinion V to revolve six 
times to once of the sweep. 

To construct a \" pitch with the above leading-screw, the 
gears would require changing so as to cause the pinion to 
revolve twice to once of the sweep. For the construction of 
any fraction of the above pitches, the gears would, of course, 
require proportionally changing. 

The pitch for the leading-screw would, for general work, be 
better if \". The ^" pitch could, of course, be used, but such 
a coarse feed for fine pitches is objectionable. For grooves 
above 2" pitch, \" pitch leading-screw would be best. 

The spindle A is not necessarily secured in such a base as 
shown. The idea is simply that it must be firmly held in some- 
thing that will remain stationary. While the spindle is shown 
here self-supporting, it would be better for general work were 
the top supported by a brace. To do this, the spindle would 
require to be prolonged farther above the wheel than here 
shown. 

While there are no sizes given, any one requiring such a 
machine can ver}' roadil}', from the views and doseription, pro- 
portion and construct such a machine as the size of a job may 
require. 



76 SWEEriNO GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 

Tin: two engravings, one on p. 77 and tlic other on p. 79, 
each reprcsentnig a different plan of sweeping a large grooved 
drum in loam, are not only instructive in so far as they repre- 
sent practical processes, but are interesting, in connection with 
that shown on p. 73, as showing that the trade of the moukk-r 
demands the exercise of talents of a high order. I am indebt^-'d 
to the courtesy of David Matlock, manager of the I. P. Morris 
Company's foundry, Philadelphia ; and Homer Hamilton, of 
the Hamilton AVorks, Youngstown, 0., — for being able to 
present to mj' readers these plans, which are well worth the 
consideration of practical men. 

In the plan ado[)ted by Mr. Matlock (Fig. 3H), a spiral 
groove, as shown, is cut for nearly the entire length of the 
si)indl('. The pitch of this gioove is made the same as the 
pitch of the grooved drum is intended to be ; and a set screw 
projects through the arm of the sweep, and enters tlie groove 
in the s[)indle. Of course it is plain, tiiat, in revolving the 
sweep, it will have a corresi)onding spiral movement. 

Mr. Hamilton's plan (Fig. 37) involves the use of a plate B, 
the working-face of which is turned up in a screw-cutting lathe 
to the desired pitch. At F is represented a i)iece about S" 
long, dowelled to the main plate so as to be readily removed. 
The roller at E permits the sweep to be easily* revolved. Tlie 
drums, for the making of which this plan was originated, were 
14 feet in diameter, and 7 feet 4" in lengtii. They were stiff- 
ened b}- inside rilis and flanges, and had G" outsidi- flanges at 
ends. They were poured by dropi)ing the mdal from the top, 
and, when done, were said to l)e liist-chiss castings. 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



77 



I will not dwell upon forming the inside, of di'unis, as Uiat is 
a matter of secondary importance compared with sweeping the 
outside or groove portion of drums. 




Fig. 37. 

In the loaming or sweeping-up of a mould, a straight sweep 
is generally lirst used ; after which this is detached, and the 



78 SWEEI'INf; fiUOOVKI) DIUMS IN LOAM. 

s\Vff)i for foiiiiiiii^ tlif grooves :itt;iclu'<I. In liolli cul.s, tin; 
proovcil |M>iti(»ii of the swrcp is shown in lilm-k. TliLs p'>rtion 
of the s\vt'('[) could lie nuuli" cf slu-i-t or hoilcr iruii phitcs, ms 
tliL' proji'itions iirc very ciisily broken if of \v()o«l ; or lliis por- 
tion could \xi wootl, faced with a thin sheet-iron plate, us 
represented at F (Fig. 3<S). This strengthens the wood, and 
prevents the working-edge of tiie sweep from rapidly wearing 
away. At V the working portion of the sweep is shown to he 
all iron, made so as to be removed, thereby allowing for attach- 
ing either a straight or a grooved sweep, as shown at 3f and A". 
'J'he cut of Mr. Hamilton's rigging shows the inclined plate 
in place ready to sweep the grooves. This |>late is not so 
placed until after the mould is roughly swept up with the 
straight sweep, which is done by letting the sweep rest and 
revolve upon the collar A, which, as now seen, is dropi)ed out 
of contact, in order to show the position of the sweep when 
forming the grooves, the incbned plate B having been lowered 
to the bottom holding-step T. Then, after the straight sweep 
has done its work, the inclined plate is raised to its proi)er ix»si- 
tion, and held by the set screw shown in B, after which the 
collar A is dropped out of contact, so as to allow the sweep to 
travel in a spiral direction. The sweep starts at F; and when 
It has passed away from F this piece is removed, allowing 
the sweep to travel more than the whole circumference of the 
grooves. The sweep is then returned, F being replaced, and 
another revolution is made ; and so on to the end. This plan 
causes the sweep to be turned back over the same surface every 
revolution it makes, and is very objectionable, for it is apt to 
tear and rough up the surface of the mould. To avoid this, the 
dowelled piece F can be left out, and, when the sweep comes to 
the step, let it drop down upon the starting-point of the inclihe. 
To do this, there will of course be left a narrow strip the entire 
length of the swce[), that cannot have the grooves formed : as 
this strip needs to be but V\ or such a matter, wider than the 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



79 



sweep, it can very readily be filled up after the balance of the 
grooves are finished ; and then, after leaving the starting-point, 
the piece F can be set so that when the sweep gets arouud, it 




can be made to travel more than the whole circumference, 
thereby sweeping off that portion or strip of the grooves which 
was filled up. By this plan the sweep is always travelling in 
the same direction, and the little strip to be filled can be swept 



80 S\VKKI'IN(; (iUOOVKl) DUTMS IN l.tlAM. 

with one rc'VtjluliDii if llii' jolj is iiiU'Hijicnlly |)Lrfunin,'tl. Of 
the two plans, llit- latter one is tlec-idcdly the best to adojtt. 

In loainin^ or sweeping up the irrooves, tlic method adojitcd 
should depend ui)on tiie size or piteh of the grooves, and also 
upon the nature of the loam. If the grooves are not over |" 
deep, and the loam a fair stirfening kind, the grooves may ])e 
swept up without much delay. ]>ut should the loam ])C a slow 
stiffening kin<l, it I'.iight l)e advisaiile to partly dry the inside of 
the mould with a basket fire, having the top of the mould cov- 
ered over with sheet-iron plates to keep in the heat. Tiiis plan 
in the case of larger grooves, with the best of loam, might 
often be advisaiile. Of course, the reader is to understand, by 
drying the mould before swcepuig the gro(n'es, that the mould 
has been swept by a straight sweep ; and, by partly drying the 
loam forming the straight part, it presents a dry body to absorb 
the moisture of the loam used when forming the grooves. 

In the case of very laige grooves, it might be necessary to 
use the groove sweep when building up the brickwork, so as 
to build the bricks projecting into the grooves, which would, of 
course, often necessitate breaking the bricks. Again, for 
forming grooves, loam bricks or cakes might be made the circle 
and thickness wanted, and wlien building up the mould use a 
four-inch common brick wall upon the outside of the loam- 
cakes. The cakes being made the proper size for the job, there 
should be ver^' little time lost in waiting for the loam to stiffen 
when sweeping up the mould. The above plans are only given 
as ideas, as I could not recommend any plan unless the special 
requirements of a job are known. However, they aie all worth 
remembering ; as, with a little judgment, it would l»e but a sim- 
ple matter for one to know which would be the best to adoi»t 
for his special job. 

The details of any work of this character call for the exercise 
of individual judgment on the jiart of the moulder, as no cast- 
iron rules can be made for jobs that in each case will probablj' 
possess peculiar features. 







Fig. 39. 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 81 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 

The making of propcller-whcels has, perhaps, in the devis- 
ing of rigging and plans, brought about more stud}' and thought 
than any other class of castings. To a man not practised in 
the art of moulding, a propeller-wheel, from its general crook- 
edness, seems to present many difficulties ; but to a moulder 
accustomed to making such wheels, the job seems simple 
enough. "What troubles loam-moulders not accustomed to 
making wheels, is to devise rigging with which to make thorn. 
Give them the rigging, and they will do the job more easily 
than I can write an article on so crooked a subject. 

The principle of a propeller- wheel is that of a screw working 
in a nut, the water forming the nut ; but, while the ordinary 
screw working in a metal nut is a true screw, in the case of the 
propeller-wheel it is not always a true screw ; and sometimes, 
on account of this irregularity, it will be made from a pattern 
instead of being swept up. 

The engravings represent making a propeller-wheel nine feet 
diameter and fifteen feet pitch — true or regular pitch. Some 
of the different plans of moulding, as well as means for deter- 
mining the angle and pitch of blades, are also given. 

The right-angled triangle shown is for the purpose of illus- 
trating the method of obtaining the angles of different sections 
of a blade. In a wheel of true pitch, the angles are not the 
same at any two points in its length. This will be better under- 
stood b}- reference to the blade-sections K and P (Fig. 39). 
li" shows the angle at a distance of four feet, and P at about 
eight feet and a half in diameter. To determine the angle at 



82 MOULDiNf; ruorKi,Li:K-wiiF.i;L.s in i.oam. 

Miiv (itln r diaintti'i'. it is only ncccssniT to <li:i\v ;i line fii>in tlu* 
assmiifd diaiiittiT to llic top of tlic |>itcli or aiijilf. In iiiakiii*^ 
:i tciiiph't to <)l)taiii tla- aiij^li,' for any (It'sircil l)la<U', it is iiiinia- 
tc-rial how larj^e or how small the hladc is. Jt is onl}' requisite 
to have the cireuinrcrcnce and jiitch lines drawn at rij^ht aiifjles 
to the same seale ; tlien, by ecjually di\ i<lin<; the cireumfercnce 
or base-line into feet or inches, as the diameter answering to the 
circumference calls for, we can then get the angle at any re(|iiirecl 
diameter. The right-angled triangle, or " templet," here shown 
has its circumference, or base line, laid off for ten feet. Some 
may wonder why ten feet is used, when the wheel is only nine 
feet. The diameter inscribed by the "adjustable guide" is, as 
shown, one foot larger than that of the wheels ; therefore, as 
the sweep works upon the '•'adjustal)le guide," and the angle 
of the wheel or pitch is formed by it, the desired distance from 
the centre, when striking off the blades, must be the working- 
base taken in laying off the pitch or angle of the wheel. 

In moulding proi)eller-wheels in loam, a section, or some- 
times the whole of the level bed, is first swe[)t up. At the 
outer edge, some will sweep a seat as shown at i*', or in its 
place make the bed level, and at this i)oint scril)e a mark by 
passing around tlie ])ed sweep. This maik is for the purpose 
of setting the ''adjustable sweep-guide," shown on the side 
opposite i^. The adjustalile feature is something that I believe 
to be an improvement over any plan I have ever seen used. 
After this bed is swept, and divided off into as many blades 
as required, the false hub is swept up with bricks and loam. 
Around this hub a V-bead is swept, to assist in marking off the 
blade. After the hub is finished, the hub-sweep is removed, 
and the sweep for the surface . of the blade is attached to the 
iron arm. "Where this arm works against the spindle, two 
sheaves, EE, are shown. Another view of this is shown at //. 

So far as I know, tiiis idea of using the sheavi-s is original, 
as I have no knowledge of their being so used. It seems 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 83 

reasonable, however, that, if used in this way, there would bo 
greater freedom of u[)-and-down movements than when there 
is simply a round hole through the arm. 

When the blade-sweep is secured in place, the "sweep- 
guide " is set so that its base point A (seen in the front view) 
is at the dividing-line mark, as seen at 4 in the plan view. Or 
this guide may be set by a centre mark, as shown in the front 
view at D. The blade-sweep being let down until its working- 
edge is at the ceuti'e or V-bead on the hub, the sweep-guide is 
moved until the centre D is directl}' under the working-edge 
of the blade-sweep, which, by the way, should also radiate 
from the centre of the spindle ; this point being provided for 
in making the arm. 

All being now ready for building the nowel brickwork or 
bottom part of the mould, this may be done in different ways. 
One way would be to build up brickwork to about 1" of the in- 
tended bottom of the mould, and then the space from this to 
the intended cope surface could in the thickest parts be par- 
tially filled with loam-cakes to absorb the moisture from the 
wot loam. The thinner parts of the blade and joint could be 
made up entirely of soft loam. 

Another plan is to screw a thickness sweep to the blade-cope 
surface sweep, which should project below its working-surface 
at an angle equal to the distance of the thickness of the blade 
at its centre section. With this sweep the loam can be swept 
off so as to give a bottom to build a thickness on. 

Still another plan would be to make the bottom surface and 
thickness of all dry-sand mixture. To do this the bricks should 
be kept about 4" at the bottom and 9" at the top below the 
intended bottom surface of the blades. This space should then 
be partly filled with cinders ; thus avoiding the building and 
drying of a large body of brickwork, besides permitting the 
blades to be properly vented, — a very essential feature. Over 
these cinders the dry sand is rammed and struck off to form 



84 MOri.DINf; I'Kf)l'i;i,l,i;ii Win.KI.S IN I.OAM. 

tlio siirfiico of tlic Iihulis :iii(l llir joiiit. It is not iicccssnry 
tliat tlic ci'titrMl |iortioii IT slionlit Ik- Imilt u|>. in l)uil<lin;r up 
Mk' blade thickness in dry san<l or loam. All tliat is necessary 
is tf) have suiface enough lo mark out the iilade, and liavc a 
solid joint. 

In marking olT the Made, a centre line is struck hy stopping 
the swcei» at the centre of the hub. 

It may Ite here remarked, that to pri'vent mistakes it would 
also be well, in connection with the V-bead, to make a mark on 
the base F^ which may be done by drop[)iug a plumb-bob from 
the sweep before the building-up is beguu. This mark can be 
easily preserved ; aud if the V-bcad is broken, or the sweep 
moved, it is left to work from. 

After the centre line is drawn, as shown on the plan view at 
N, the diameter of the wheel is marked by running up the 
sweep, to which is screwed a sharp-pointed scriber at .S'. 
Inside the diameter another mark, 72, is scri])ed for points 
from which to describe the rounded corners of the ])ladcs. 

After this, any number of radius lines required for laying off 
the width of blade at different points can be made. 

In some wheels, the boundaries of the blades are radial lines 
to the rounded corners, as shown at XX. 

To assist in getting the form of irregularly shaped blades, it 
is well to have a thin wooden or tin frame templet made to bend 
to the shape of the joint ; this templet being the shape of the 
blade, and centred from the line N. The form of the blade 
is then marked off, and the thickness cut out b}' either of the 
following plans. 

In the fust plan (which is the best for those unused to mak- 
ing propeller-wheels), on the blade as shown at Y, are eight 
wooden gauges, each representing the thickness at different 
diameters, as P and K. The proper positions having been 
marked by the scriber, each gauge is bedded into the blade-bed 
so as to be even with the surface. This being done, the sand 



MOULDING TROPELLER-WIIEELS IN LOAM. 85 

or loam between the gauges is taken out, and one by one the 
gauges are removed and the blade finished up. In the other 
plan, less gauges are used, the eye being more depended upon 
for the shape : hence this plan requires practice. 

After the blade has been finished, the thickness is filled up 
with moulding-sand, the surface again swept off and sleeked. 
The blade-sweep and guide are then removed, and the rest of 
the nowels or bottoms of the blades swept up. 

The joint or parting being ready, the next thing is building 
the cope. Two plans are shown : the upper one, Y, will first 
be considered. This cope is made in three sections, B, F, and 
S, held together with bolts. The section B has a number of 
projections cast on it, which increase in length from the bottom 
up, the projection A" being about on a level with the top of 
the hub. These projections are for the purpose of supporting 
crossbars to carry the brickwork. The bars may be 2" square, 
and placed about 4^" apart. The ends nearest the hub are 
tied to the supporter, shown, to assist in lifting the hult-cnd 
when the cope is hoisted. The cope is lifted by the handles 2, 
4, and 6. 

On the section F are staples, one being shown with a cross- 
bar through it. There should be as man}- of these staples as 
the width of blade requires cross-bars. After the cross-bars 
are all in, and firmly wedged, the space is filled with loam and 
bricks : the brick being set endwise will make the thickness 
of cope about 9". These bricks must be fii-ml}' laid, and the 
space above and below the cross-bars should be solidly filled 
with pieces of brick and loam. "When all the bricks in the cope 
are laid, the surface is })lastered over with a coat of loam, to add 
to its strength and make an even surface. 

In the lower cut, a plan of making the cope is represented 
that involves less labor. In tliis plan, V V arc bars about 2" 
thick, 8" wide, and long enough to lap over each side of the 
joint about o". 



8G MOl'LDINf; rUOrKLLKR-WHKKLS IN LOAM. 

The two Ijirjje hok's scon arc for passinj; a stronj]; bar tliron*];h 
to hoist the copo off. These holes are ahove the centre, to 
leave the liottom the heavii'st. At the bottom of these bars are 
two siiiail lomul holes. Into these are hitched swivels, so that 
by adjusting them the cope can be lifted evenly. The s'piare 
boles are for the insertion of cross-rods, shown at 8. 

At the outer end of these cross-rods, stont wire is often 
wound to hel[) in holding the brickwork. The brickwork is 
built the same as in the instance of the cope first mentioned. 

After the copes are all built up, the joints are loam marked, 
and the false luib taken out. Before the copes can be lifted, 
they must be partially or wholly (b-ied. In some shops that 
are provided with proper facilities for handling and drying such 
a wheel, the whole would be dried at once ; and wiien about (by, 
it would be taken from the oven, the copes hoisted and turned 
up. and the mould surface finished. The nowels also l)eing fin- 
ished, both parts are again run into the oven, and thoroughly 
dried, after which the mould is got ready for casting. 

AVhen such moulds cannot be hoisted with a crane, or where 
the oven is not large enough to take the whole mould in, a 
sheet-iron curb, or, in case of large moulds, a temporary brick 
wall, is built around them, and some fireplaces made, so that a 
hot steady fire can be kept up with coal or coke without the 
necessit}' of uncovering the mould, as must be done if the fire 
are built inside the curb or wall. Charcoal and sometimes wood 
are used, not only at the bottom of the mould, but at toii of the 
copes as well. 

Sometimes, wlien oven room will not permit holding of both 
cope and nowel, after the mould has been dried sufViciently to 
lift the copes, it is uncovered, the copi'S lifted and finisiicd. and 
luii into llie oven to et)mplete the drying. Then tiie nowi'ls 
are linislutl ; and, being covered over, the fire is again started, 
and kei)t u[) till they are thoroughly dried. 

Another plan in making large wheels is to build each blade 



MOULDING rROPELLER-WIlEELS IN LOAM. 87 

on a separate plate ; then, after marking them, they can be 
placed in the oven to dry. This plan involves a little more 
labor, but it may often be more than balanced by convenience 
in drying. 

Wheels are cast in two ways. As above described, the work- 
ing-side of the blade is cast up, which is objected to by some on 
account of the dirt. But few changes are required to cast the 
working-side down. In casting this side down, instead of using 
the wooden sections, as seen at blade 1", to cut out the blade 
thickness as above described, they are reversed ; and, after being 
set in place, a few nails are placed in the sides and end to pre- 
vent their moving. The space between them is then filled with 
moulding-sand ; which being struck off, the shape of the blade 
is formed, over which the cope is built. By this plan, there is 
more certainty of the blade having its proper shape on the back, 
and more nearly correct shape of section. For, irregularly 
shaped blades, this plan is generally preferable. The forming 
of the nowel, or working-side of the wheel, is done when this 
part is built by the use of the sweep shown. 

At the bottom of the "blade-surface sweep," is shown a 
dotted curved hne ; also at the working-edge of the " adjustable 
sweep-guide." These are for showing that propeller sweeping 
is not confined to straight lines. 

The hanging sheave, usually hung from a beam overhead, 
should be as nearly over the spindle as possible. It is used, as 
will be inferred, for raising and lowering the sweep when form- 
ing a blade. Some, in using a sweep-lifter, have it connected 
with the top of th^ spindle. The spindle is made longer than 
here shown, and, having a long pin projecting above its end, 
admits of cheeks containing two sheaves revolving upon it. 

The weight shown is a hollow iron box ; which is weighted as 
required, as it is very important that the weight be accurately 
adjusted to the requirements. 

In getting the mould ready for casting, some fasten down the 



88 Mori,i)i.\(i i'UOi'i;i.i,i;u wiiKKi.s in loam. 

copes liy iiic.'iiis of a cross |(lacc(l over tlic iiioiiltl. so iia r\(A to 
iiitcircic wiili tlic L[:itrs. l""i<)iii tlic (Toss-ends, slings or bolts 
will 1)0 secMired to tlu; four Itottoiu liandli's. 

Then, again, some will secure the copes by bolting tlicni to 
staples cast in the bottom plate, as seen at C C. Instead of 
these staples, some have oblong holes cast in the l)ottom plate, 
and, by inserting T-headed Itolts, fasten down the copes. Of 
the two plans, the latter is the better, as the staples stick up 
and are in the wa}' more or less. 

In securing the circumference of tlie mould, if it is not 
rammed up in a pit, wrought-iron sheet-curl»ing is bolted 
together, and the space of about 8" allowed between it and the 
circumference of the mould raramcd-up with sand, — similar to 
the ramming up of aii}' ordinary loam-mould. The wheels are 
generally poured b}- dropping the metal from the top of the hub 
of the wheel ; and flow risers are generally placed, one upon 
the surface of each of the upper edges of the Ijlade. 



MOULDING AN UYDllAULIC HOIST CASTING. 89 



MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING 
IN DRY SAND. 

The onornving (Fig. 40) herewith shown presents ideas of 
gating and coring that may often be found useful. The casting, 
when done, was finished its entire length to an exact size, and 
required to be clean and sound. The mould was made b}' the 
use of a sweep attached to a spindle, one end of which had a 
bearing in the journal P, and the other end in a strai), not 
shown, which was bolted to the end of the flask through the 
holes E E, seen in the end view. 

Before blacking the mould, the runner and gates were cut. 
One gate admitted the metal at the bottom ; and, as the mould 
filled up, the metal entered through the side gates. These 
gates were made slanting from the runner upward, in order to 
help to prevent the mould from cutting or scabbing. With a 
gate thus cut, it is very evident that little or no iron can run 
into the mould until the metal has risen in the mould nearly up 
to the slanting gates. If this can be accomplished, there is 
ver}' little danger of the core or mould surface being cut upon 
the metal entering the mould, which would, of course, be very 
liable to spoil the casting. 

Some one may feel like asking, Why are there so many side 
gates? and could not the mould be run entirely from the l)ottom 
gate? The mould could be run by one bottom gate ; but by its 
use alone the metal, as it rose upwards, would be sluggish and 
dull, thereby retarding the dirt from floating up to the top of 
the casting, about six inches of which is cut off. By having 
the gates as shown, there will be about as hot metal to fill the 




a 



I -r. rt»t» 



'iS.r- ^6 





00 Mon.DlNf; AN llYDItAII.JC IKMST CASTINC. 

top portion of tlic mould as there is at tlie holtoiii, tlieril»y 
assisting the dirt to float up to the riser head. 

The upper portion of the pouring; runner will he seen to be 
21", wliile helow it is li". The idea I had in making the upper 
part smaller was io assist the slanting inlet gates in preventing 
the metal from ruiiiiing into the mcMild until the i)ro|»er time. 
Had the runner heen '2\" for its entire length, it would most 
liktly have lilled. so as to make one unltroken eoluiiiu of (low- 
ing metal, thereby causing the metal to run into the mould 
through every side gate. By having the runner as siiown. it 
is evident that the 3" portion would take metal faster than was 
admitted through the "21" part, therel)y assisting in preventing 
the metal iu runner from rising much higher than that in the 
mould. 

Some may think it would be a good plan to use horn-gates, 
as seen attached to the cope section, A B, in the place of the 
straight gates. It would certainly assist the dirt to rise if the 
metal whirled ; but if tlie horn-gates were used, the extra labor 
they would make would hardly be paid for in what little benefit 
might be derived ; especially as the chai)lets would tend to stop 
the whirling of the metal. However, if used, they would 
require to be set slanting upwards. 

The gates, Xos. 28 and 20, are shown cut into a projection, 
a wrinkle founded upon a princii)lc that could l)e api)lied to the 
making of many castings. The first one of these castings I 
made had a defect, in the shape of a hole al)Out J" deep in front 
of each of the upper gates, 2S, 20. By the use of a little com- 
mon-sense, I saw what I should have thought of before, which 
is simply that a light body of iron will contract faster than a 
heavy one. The runner being much tiie smallest body, its 
length would naturally contract fiister than that of the casting ; 
and, in doing this, the weakest point must break. In this case, 
tne weakest i)oint w:us where the gate connected with the 
casting. The surface of the casting being in a half-molten 



MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING, 91 

condition, the gate would carry awa}' a portion of it. By 
enlarging the casting about |" at this point (which was about 
the depth of hole the withdrawal of gate would leave) , there 
was no further tionble. The projection, in cleaning the casting, 
is, of course, chipped off, which would then leave it, at this 
point, full and sound. 

In the core as set into the mould, there will be seen two small 
necks, F and K. The diameter at F being onl}' 2^", I did not 
thinly it would safely support the weight of the upper core when 
the flask was upon its end ; therefore I devised the plan of 
hanging the core from the flask, as shown. 

With the exception of tlie wrought-iron rods, shown in the 
neck K, and at F, the core-arbor is all cast-iron. In making 
this arbor, its form was marked off" on a level bed, and then cut 
out with a gate-cutter ; the rods A" and V being set in. The 
horn-pricker shown was then pushed into the sand at about 
every 9" along the length of the mould, as seen b}' the projec- 
tions on the arbor. In the upper end of each arbor, there were 
cast two nuts, Y. Into these were screwed bolts, S S, the 
heads of the bolts being screwed up tight against the wrought- 
n-on plates, XX (the thickness of which is one inch). Between 
these plates and the end of the core-arbor were placed wrought- 
iron wedges, D D. The plates X X not only held up the core, 
but they also held down the core when the mould was poured, 
as will be seen by the four bolts at RRRR on the end view of 
flask. These four bolts are screwed mto holes tapped mto the 
end of the flask, and the plates screwed down tightly, thereby 
making a firm, reliable rigging for the purpose intended. 

Another point of intei'cst is the plan by which the core was 
made. Ordinarily- a full core-I)Ox would be made, and this 
might be the cheapest plan were there manj' cores to make ; 
))ut for the few wanted, their construction by the use of sweeps 
was a saving of at least flt'tcen dollars. In making the core, 
the core-platos were levelled and firmly set upon the oven car- 



!I2 MOri-DINC AN IIYDKAri.IC HOIST CASTING. 

riairc 'IIk' centre of llic |)l:ite was tlicii foiimK aiul a line 
(liawii. Tlie k'nirtli of the cdic, fr<*iii tlic cinl /' t<» tlic iit-ck 
K, was then laid off, the hl(jeks M and .V phieed on ; and after 
heini;; set and marked around, these hloeks were lifted, and 
ahout one inch thickness of core sand [ilacecl n|pon the plate. 
Tlu' core-arhor was set upon this, and, after hein;^ centred antj 
fonnd to lie otherwise correct, the blocks J/ and N were set on 
their marks and the core rammed up. I'or foiniiuL:; the lon<ii- 
tudinal straight portion of the core, the straiiiht sweep shown 
was used. For the taper longitn<linal portion of the core, the 
taper sweep shown was used. The dotti'il line on this sweep 
represents the straight poition of the core. The taper sweep 
was cut out, as represented, in order to clear the portion of the 
c(jre foinietl 1»y the straight sweep. The taper sweep could 
have been used half its length, had there been another block 
like JN'' placed at //. After being dried, the halves were l)lacked 
and rolled over, after which a vent was filed along their centres. 
The top half of the core was then rolled back; and, being 
hoisted by the four liftingdiooks, it was lowered upon the bot- 
tom half, and gently rulibetl until a close joint was fornjed. 

It might be well to state that the sweep and blocks were 
matle about ^" out of a true circle, being the largest in the 
direction of the vertical section. This is indicated l)y the dif- 
ference between tiie vertical and horizontal measurements on 
the "straight sweep," and was to allow for the core sagging 
and for rubbing down. Had this not been allowed for, the core 
would have been far from being a round one. Kulibing it 
down made a close joint, which assisted in keeping the metal 
iv\n\\ getting into the joint-vent of the core. 

After bi'ing rul)l»ed and found to be all right, the top half 
was hoisted, and the joint brushed off and carefully spread with 
flour-paste. It was then again lowered, and the two halves 
bolted together, as shown in the longitudinal section. 

No. oU shows a sectitju of cut tulles, 3" in diameter, placed 



MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING. 93 

when the core was made. This is for the purpose of making 
a clean, firm iiok', up(m which to lay the washers, 31, for 
screwing down the bolts W. 

The section AB, marked " cope," shows tlie position of the 
chaplets around the core ; and the longitudinal sectional plan of 
mould shows the number that were used for securing it length- 
wise. The two lower chaplets were placed at the joint's surface 
in order to give the core about the same hold sideways at the 
lower end as the print gave at the upper end. 

Before setting the nowel and cope chaplets, the core was 
carefully calipered, and the diameter of the mould measured. 
At every bearing-place of the chaplet, the mould and core meas- 
urements were compared, and thereby the exact thickness of 
metal obtained, so that when the core was set it would be in the 
centre of the mould. 

The cope was then tried on ; there being flour under the cope 
chaplets on the top of the core, to see if they touched as they 
should to make a safe, reliable, chapleted core. In closing 
the flask (there being no pins), the only guides were the bottom 
spindle-journal P, and feeling the joint at the top through the 
risers 33 and 34. "When the cope was hoisted, and every thing 
found to be right, the iron joint was pasted, and the cope 
lowered for good. After being firmly secured with bolts and 
clamps, the joint was carefully packed with wet loam, especially 
at the lower end, in order to prevent any run-out. The riser- 
holes and pouring-runner were stopped with waste to keep out 
dirt ; and the flask was then hoisted upon end, and placed in 
the pouring-pit. 

The pit being only about nine feet deep, it was necessary to 
build staging for reaching the pouring-basin and feeding-head ; 
and also, to pour the mould, the basin support shown was made 
because of having to pour so high above the ground. 

The nuts 35 and 30 were screwed into tapped holes in the 
flask ; and, to assist them in holding up the basin, scantlings 



Il4 Mori.DINfJ AN IlVDK.VrLlC HOIST CASTING. 

ucif iihiccil, iiiiiniii^ fioiji the (iiitfr »'<l^'c of tin- jiluti- on :i 
sImiiI to tlif tla>-k. 'I'lif cmU of llic scant liiij^s ri'sU'd upon tliu 
handles of llit- llask, \\lii<li an- nol sliown. With the exception 
of the fust dcfcel nientiuuiHl, the eastings eiiniu sound and 
eh^an. 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 95 



CRUSHING AND FINNING OF DRY-SAND AND 
LOAM CASTINGS. 

Having discussed the joints of green-sand moulds, p. 155, in 
order to conclude the subject, the question in relation to dry- 
sand and loam moulds would appear to be in order, the con- 
siderations of each branch being measurably distinct. A 
green-sand mould, if the joint is not disturbed, will close as 
nearly air-tight as it is before parting. Eve« if there are ir- 
regularities in the surface, they will often yield and bed them- 
selves in a way to make the joint tight. In a drj'-sand or loam 
mould, incompressibility of the material, and the fact that the 
joint is more or less distorted in drying, will prevent this, so 
that the joint will either be kept apart, or will crush in closing. 
" It is better to have a Jin than a crush," is an old adage that 
has frequently to be learned by sad experience. 

With dry-sand and loam moulds, then, it may be said that 
they should generally have a fin to prevent the probability of 
bad results. For this purpose the edges of the joint are cut or 
sleeked down, leaving an opening, shown at K, Fig. 41. In 
sleeking for a fin, there are three waj's in which it can be done. 
Sometimes it can be sleeked down at the edge of the pattern, 
as shown at P; then, after the cope has been rammed up and 
lifted off, the cope- joint shows a raised edge, as at B. This 
raise is then cut off, as represented at E, after which it is 
sleeked down, the same as the nowel at P. This makes a thick 
fin, which, for some jobs, is the safest, and often the best ; as, 
for instance, when there is a possibilit}' of the joint being torn 
up in drawing the pattern, or when the flask is not well fitted. 



96 



fltrsiIINT, AM) riNNINf; CASTINOS. 



TIiL- SL-c<»ii(l plan, and oiir llial iiiakcs a iicat (lii. is. not to 
sk't'k tlown the joint :i.s at 1\ Itnt leave it level, as at A. After 



5 '< 

umm. 







the cope is lifted. lM)tli joints arc then sleeked down. The 
pressure used iu sleeking will, of course, to some extent regu- 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 97 

lato tlio lliickiioss of tlio fin ; l)iit by lliis plan it would roquirc 
vi'iy heavy pressure to provide for :i llu as thiek as \)y the first 
method, as by that a portion of the joint surface is cut away 
before it is sleeked, aud the cutting-away of the projection B 
not only lessens the surface, but also softens the sand so that 
it sleeks down easil}'. By the second plan, a thicker fin can be 
made by swabbing the joint before sleeking, than by sleeking 
at its natural dampness. 

Sometimes, with a good flask and a pattern that draws well 
(and particuhirh- ^vhen the mnnldor is a careful via)i), sleeking 
down the cope half of the mould will be sulficient. This makes 
a thinner fin than when both halves are sleeked down, but its 
safety depends upon tlie ability of the moulder to get his work 
down to a fine limit. 

For jobbing work I would establish the first plan, as it gives 
a doubt the preference. In such work, ill-fitting, unhandy 
flasks must often be used, as wqW as i)oor patterns, so that the 
second plan named would involve too much risk to be ad()[)ted 
by the majority of moulders or shops. 

At // is pictured the cause of some moulds l)cing crushed, 
and the introduction of the castings to the scrap-heap. The fin 
should be largest at the edge of the mould, and taper back to 
nothing, the width being from 2" to 4". As represented at H, 
this is not provided for ; instead of an easy slant, as seen at 
K, the trowel is pressed upon the 'edge of the joint, raising up 
l)ack portions of the sand higher than the joint. "When the 
cope is closed, and the two joints come together, the raised 
portions touch first ; and, of course, a a-nsh is the result. As a 
rule, it is best not only to be sure of the opening for a fin at 
tlie edge of the mould, l)ut also to sleek over the whole of the 
surface of the joint to make sure it does not touch hard in 
places, and that the joints of the flask shall come together, as 
shown on the side at A". 

It should not be understood, that, because the joint side K 



98 



tllLSlllNa AND I'lNMNCi CASTINGS. 



shows a elonrnnoo over its wholo body, larger surface- joints 
should lie cut or sh'C'l<c(l dowu lo allow of liuiiiiig all over. The 
idea roujj,1iI to he coiivi ytd is, that saud-joints bhoidd not in 
any way iiii'\eiit the lla.sk ecjuiiug together, as reitresenled as 
doing at .S". 

\\ licii there is a large area of j(nnt fin, there is danger that 
tlif joint will hold the fin in shrinking, so that a jjieee will be 
pnllcd out of the easting, as shown in llie <-uts marked "Fin Y" 
and " Fin 7','' Fig. 42, I have ofti'U seen this result in cylinder 
and roll castings, the iron in whicli is generally hard, causing the 
liu to chill vciy (juiekly after the mould is poured ; and, of 




Fier. 42. 



course, in cooling, it shrinks.^ "When the fin is lai'ge in area, 
or the joint invgular and the casting a thick one, there is the 
probability, that, when the fin commences to shrink, it will pull 
awa}' from the casting, taking with it a piece of the frozen sur- 
face or edge of the casting, from the inner, more Mnid mass. 

Sometimes a moulder may t-xereise pro[)ei' care about the 
mould's lin \k\\{ of the joint. Imt be cai'cless whei'i' a runner or 
gate is cut, as shown at 7'^ Fig. 41. It is essential that such 
parts should be fmned, as the edges of the joint-gates and 
runners can be crushed as easily as any other iiait. If they are 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 99 

enishecl, it introduces dirt into the mould, and, perhaps, pro- 
vides for a rim-out. 

To guard against crushing, care should he taken that the 
flask-joints come together properly, and that they are not kept 
apart by dirt or rust. To this end, before starting to gagger 
or ram up the cope, it should be firmly bolted or clamped to 
the nowel, as represented at Z>, Fig. 41, As a further precau- 
tion against the loss of a casting by the crushing of dry-sand 
moulds, it is often advisable to close them together, bolt or 
clamp them, then hoist off the cope, and examine the mould 
before casting them. In moulding cylinders in dr}' sand, this 
is especially to be commended. In some cases, I have the 
mould closed before any cores are set : then, with a lamp inside 
the mould, the joints can be plainly seen, and felt if uneven or 
overshot ; the thickness of fin can also be noted, and, if found 
too thin, can be cut out when the cope is raised up. 

Before leaving the subject of dry-sand joints, there is another 
point worthy of note. After the mould has been blacked, the 
joint should be washed over lightly with the same blacking, 
thiimed with beer or molasses-water to a degree that will just 
blacken the joint-surface. The same treatment should be given 
the core-prints ; as it not only makes a better-looking mould, 
but by forming a hard skin prevents such parts from crumbling 
away when being brushed or handled. After blacking the 
joint, the}' should be sleeked to level down any lumps that may 
be on the surface. Often the blacking of the joint is neglected, 
or it is blacked with thick blacking, thereby increasing the 
thickness, making it liable to be crushed. Again, the joint will 
be wet until it is little better than a bed of mud, therel)}' getting 
it out of all reasonable shape. Either of these last-named 
operations is likely to bring about bad results, 

A consideration of the joints of loam-moulds embraces more 
than can be covered with a single article. Some of tlie features 
connected with this subject have been referred to in previous 



loo ClUSlilNCJ AM) 1 INNIN*; rASIlNf;S. 

articles. :in(l a few points iiiiiy lie niriitioiud here. The joints 
of loMiii-nioiiltIs slioiihl !»(' liniMil ii|ioii the .same Lrtiicial priii- 
cipii' as those of div-saml inoulils, l»iit tlic tiniiinj^ is acconi- 
plislic'd ililTeiviitly. Instead of sleekitiij down tlie joints, they 
are <jeneially scraped or shaved olT. Two points are here 
illustrated, whieh, I hidii've, are not jieni-rally known or prac- 
tised. At ir, Fig. 11, in the cylinder loani-inould. is shown a 
bead swe|)t where the mould is to l)e jointed. I>y parting: tiie 
joint in this way, the fin can generalU' he chipped olT, and the 
surface smootiied with a file, so as to present scarcely any sif^ns 
of tile joint. 'I'his plan also provides for hiding overshotues.s, 
which will often occur in loam-castings. 

Tills bead is generally applicable to joints formed by a sweep, 
and for irregularly forme<l joints that recjuire hand-work it can 
sometimes l)e used. >Sometimes sections of loam-moulds arc 
swept independently of each other, and closed together in get- 
ting read}' to cast. P^or such moulds, the sweep can often Itc 
made so as to form the fin. In this way, the fin will be quite 
even in size, giving the easting a symmetrical appearance. 
Fins, at their best, are not an element of beauty, and the re- 
fined moulder will study to see that they mar the general ap- 
pearance of castings as little as possible. 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 101 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 

The subject of cores is a very important one in its relation to 
tlie production of good castings. Some years back it was cus- 
tomary in many shops for the moulders to make their own cores ; 
l)ut at the present time core-making is coming to be a distinct 
branch, at least as much so as loam, drj'-sand, or green-sand 
work. To excel in core-making is a credit equal to that of 
excelling in any otlier branches of the moulder's trade, as the 
success of the moulder in i)roducing good castings is often 
largely dependent upon the skill of the core-maker. Take, for 
example, the casting of a steam-cylinder. As a rule, there is 
not much to fear with the outside. The main risk is in the 
cored parts. Cylinder cores, as a rule, with the exception of 
the centre core, ma^^ be classed as thin and crooked, and arc 
much more difficult to make than larger cores. 

The question is often asked, How thin is it practicable to 
make and use cores? To answer this, it would be necessary 
to know the general shape of the core, and its position in the 
mould. A much lighter core can be used if set vertically than 
if it must be set and cast horizontally. AVhen set vertically, 
there is a much better chance for the gas to escape ; as it is 
not so suddenly covered with iron in pouring, and there is no 
great lifting strain on a verticall}' set core. 

The greatest difficulty to be overcome in making thin cores is 
in rodding and venting them : in fact, here is where the greatest 
skill in core-making is required. The chief cause of gases in 
cores is in the materials of which thej' are made ; and the least 
gas there is in a core to be got rid of, the better, other things 
being equal. 



hlli MAKIN(J AND VKNTlNfi COKKS. 

A laifio amount of fins rosiilts from llio iiso of Hour. Tlic 
^usc'S from slroii^ly-imule Hour corfs, in u siiuill Icjw-roofed 
shop, often rciiiU-r it uiitoiialilc. Kosiii evolves Itiit little jras ; 
and hence in many eases its nsc is desirahle, particularly as it 
vents and ignites easily. Kosin is comparatively hut little 
used ; one rciison being, no douht, that it requires to he pulver- 
ized, and another that it requires more care to use than most 
material used for the purpose. Kosin cores will rarely admit 
of handling when hot, and are not so relialile for heav>' castings ; 
also the}' cannot be so firmly an<l readily pasted together as 
Hour cores. Sometimes, to assist in removing the objections 
stated, flour is used with rosin. 

The chief use of rosin for making cores is in the instance of 
small cores, in which case it saves Uilior, because such cores for 
thin castings need not be blacked, and can be handled more 
readily vihen green than flour cores can be, and they assist in 
producing finer small castings than can be procui-ed with flour. 

The blacking of a large numl)er of small cores is not only 
tedious and costl}-, l)ut it is often almost impossilile to leave 
the corners as sharp and perfect as when they came from the 
box. If they can l)e used without being blacked as by the use 
of rosin, there is certainly an advantage gaini'd. 

In mixing sand for small cores, two things are to be consid- 
ered : First, fine sand leaves a better surface on the castings ; 
second, the finer the sand, the less opportunity for the veut to 
get off: hence the question is, how fine sand can be used, and 
at the same time provide for projier venting. 

In making small rosin cores, moulding and bank sands are 
the best. If the venting will admit, smoother castings may be 
made b}' using the moulding-sand alone. If it is jiarticularly 
desirable to save venting, then bank-sand is best. Sometimes 
bank and moulding sand can be mixed to good a<lvantage. 

The amount of rosin that should be mixed with the sand is 
dependent upon the nature of the sand used, and the kind of 




Ironltods':-'.'. '■■■/.■ 



Fig. 43. 



MAKING AND VI<:NTING CORES. 103 

cores wanted. With ordinary tiew raoiildiujj-sand, one part 
rosiii to (iftoeu parts of sautl will make good eores for ordinary 
work ; but if very strong cores are required, a larger proportion 
of rosin may be used, or the sand strengthened with molasses 
water. In any case, it should be borne in mind, that, the 
weaker the core, the more freely the gas will escape. In some 
cases it is advisable to mix a small quantity of flour with the 
rosin. If too much flour is used, however, it may make it 
necessarj- to black the cores. Sometimes it is desirable to have 
the surface of cores hard and firm, and the interior porous ; so 
that they will bear handling, and provide for a smooth surface 
on the easting, and at the same time permit the gases to escape 
freely. In making such cores, the more open the sand, and the 
less flour or rosin used, the better. To assist in making a firm, 
hard surface, the cores should be sprinkled with beer or mo- 
lasses water. 

The quicker, after being made, a core is put into the oven, 
the better. The air-dried surface of a core is liable to crumble. 
Another point that may be noted is, that, the wetter the sand for 
cores can be worked, the less the flour or rosin required. At 
the same time, if the sand is too wet, small cores will stick to 
the boxes, and large cores are lial)le to sag or crack. 

In making flour cores where they must be strong, and where 
they cannot be thoroughly vented, it is sometimes a good plan 
to use boiled flour, as a much less quantit3' will suffice. To 
use this, the flour should be put in a kettle with enough water 
to make a thin paste. After boiling, this is mixed with water, 
and the sand wet with it. If all the water the sand requires 
can be boiled with the flour, all the better. 

A man who can successfully make the class of cores shown 
in the engraving, Fig. 43, may safely call himself a core-maker. 

Some port-cores are comparatively easily made, but as a rule 
they are amongst the most difficult to make. To properly rod 
and vent such cores, is often a matter that calls for careful 



104 MAKINt; AND VIATINf; fOKKS. 

coM.si'U'nitinii. :iii(l a <xi>o<l kiiKwlcil^f of lln' laws of <';uisc ami 

It is not llic iiitciilioii lo olTcr inslniclioii as to liow any 
sprrial port-cores slioiild l>c iiiailc. Imt rallicr to sliow dilTi-rciit 
i)l:vns that have Ik-cii and may I't' piai-tisfd under dilTereiit elr- 
cunistaiiccs. When the ihawinirs of !i cylinder come into the 
pattern-shop, the pattern-maker should ccjnsult with the moulder 
as to the l)est way to make the pattern and the core-hoxes, to 
the end that it may be safi-ly and expeditiously moulded. 

In the engravings are shown three plans for making jxirt- 
cores. The fust one can often be used in making small cylin- 
ders, to the saving of work by the moulder, and increasing the 
prol)ability of good castings. The ports, exhaust and steam- 
ehcst cores, cannot always l)e made together, as sh(jwn, but 
very often they can be. 

The second plan, in which part of the core is swept up, is 
very handy for the moulder, as well as simple for the jjattern- 
maker. It gives the moulder an opi)ortuuity to see what he is 
doing, and saves him time and labor. 

The third plan, of having a full box, is one often resorted 
to where the cores are quite crooked and irregular, but should 
seldom be resorted to where the second plan can be employed. 

In the engravings are shown four plans for rodding cylinder 
cores. The lower right-hand cut represents the making of cast- 
iron rods. This is done by taking half the core-box, and l>ed- 
ding its face into the sand, which is made solid for the purpose. 
The box is then withdrawn ; and, by using a gate cutter, a 
frame similar to the welded core-iron shown is made. For a 
cope or covering, heavy paper is used, laying it over the face 
of the joint. Sand is then packed on the paper, and boards 
and pig-iron i)laced to hold the sand down when the frame is 
poured, which is done through the i)ouring gate, as represented. 
Irons like this are readily made, and are often good for short, 
thick cores. 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 105 

Ou the liolit a,rc roproscntiHl wrontilit-irou rods, rcatly to have 
cast ou them a uarrow phite of etist-iroii. This is for tlie pur- 
pose of hohhiig the rods in their proper position at tlie print 
end. Single eross-rods are used, when making the cores, for 
hohling tlic other end together. For getting off the vents, 
holes are drilled or cast in the plate, as shown at 1, "2, 3, and 
4. At X, X, are shown two views of a wooden support, cut 
to the circle required, and having notches for the number of 
rods required. This is used for holding the rods in proper 
position while the plate is being cast on them. This kind of 
rod is often good for very large, thick cores. Another plan, 




HOOK. 

Fig. 44. 

■which is often better than the one above described, is as seen 
by Fig. 44. Here, instead of the wrought-iron rods being cast 
in or held li}' the print end, they are all held by their centres ; 
which, besides making them stitif, presents a " core-iron " easy 
and simple to make. 

The welded core-iron shown is one commonly used. Some- 
times, instead of welding the wrought-iron rods, they are riveted 
together. Frames of either kind make reliable rods for thin 
cores, large or small. The objections to them are, that thejfe 
are costly to make, and that removing them from the casting is 
somewhat troublesome. At D and E are shown two forms tliat 
are used for fastening wire or bolt hooks to them, to securely 
hold the core in the mould's print. The one at E is made by 
simply flattening the end, and drilling a hole through it. 



lOG MAKiN'i AND \"i:NriNf; (•f)iii;s, 

Tlic liflli Mini l:is( |i|;iii rcpicsciils tlic uso of siiiLrlo uxls, 
sottiiiu t lii'iii in llic core ;is il i.-, i:iiiiiikm1 up. 'I'lic ciil shows 
the iMopcr innimcr of pl:icin^ llic rods, Wciv tlic lon«; rods 
l:iid so as to have tlio f-ross-rods *S', scon in soction A 11, on 
the other side froiii Ihat rcprosenli'd. when the core was fas- 
tcMicd hy tlic liook I), in the print, tliere woidd he daiiixer of 
cracking the core. AViun made as shown, pnlling on the hook 
draws the wliole core with it. This plan I have employed for 
the port cores of large ni:iiin(^-engine cylinders. In one shop, 
where the custom was to weld the rods together, I started to 
make a set of lai'ge cores in this way, and was told by the fore- 
man that he had never seen large cores so made, and that he 
did not think the plan a safe one. As I had made larger ones 
in the same way, I argued him into permitting a trial. From 
tliat time on, there were no more welded rods used ; and the new 
plan saved in the neighborhood of live dollars on every cylinder 
casting. 

Regarding the size of rods to be used for such cores, llie 
thickness of the cores and a consideration of getting olY tlie vents, 
etc., must govern each particular case. The larger the rods, 
the stiffer will he the core ; but they should he no larger than 
is necessary, for it is more dillicult to get laige rods out of the 
casting than it is small ones. 

If no vents wore needed, the making of port cores would be 
much simplified. ]\Iore, generalh', depends upon the vent than 
upon any other feature. The vent-rod and rope shown repre- 
resent the two plans commonly emploj'od for venting thin, 
ci-ooked cores. By using the rod, a cleaner vent is usually 
insured than by using the rope. The rope is reliable, but 
requires vindi more care in its xise ; which not always being 
received, the lial)ility of failure is increased. The use of the 
lods calls for the most work. When rope is used, nothing more 
is reijuirt'd after the core is diy ; but with rods there are connec- 
tions to be made, as at /i", to make the vent continuous. To 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 107 

c<Mincot the vent, a crevice slionkl be made witli a file, as repre- 
sented in dotted lines at K. This crevice is nuide dee^) enoiigii 
to admit a string to aliout the centre of the thickness of the 
core. A string is then passed through either of the holes left 
by the vent-rods, and made to enter the other. The crevice is 
then filled up, the surface smoothed, and the string removed. 
After all the connections have been made, the core is put back 
iu the oven to dry the material used for filling the crevice. 

At H, is shown how rods can sometimes be made to connect 
themselves within the body of the core, thereby saving the labor 
just detailed. The holes at the surface, of course, require fill- 
ing ; and when the rods connect near the surface of the core, 
care must be used that the filling of the holes does not close the 
connection. After H and K have been filled, test the vents by 
blowing smoke or dust through, as from A to B. If all the 
veuts are clear, then stop up the openings at A. 

In using rope or strings, the arrangements of the voniB should 
be well secured ; and care must be used, or in pulling them out 
the}' will be drawn up to the side of the box. A crooked laid 
rope or string has a tendency to straighten when pulled ; and, 
although the sand may prevent this, there is always a chance 
that it will not do. so. Sometimes, to all appearances, the 
operation may have been successfully performed, but in pouring 
the mould the string may have come so near the surface in 
some places that the iron will burst through. At 2, 3, 4, and 
5, are represented the core-rods placed to prevent the string 
from being pulled up against the sides of the box. 

The making and venting of coi'es is a broad subject, and calls 
for the exercise of much thought and judgment. As in mould- 
in"', he that uses them will meet with the most success. 



108 SKCUllINfi COKi; VKNTS. 



SECURING COIIE-VKNTS. 

In' niakino; a mould for any casting, many of the oj^orations 
may l)c tk'scril)od as those common to the art of moulding; 
^Yllik^ in some instances, new operations may l)e re(iuired. A 
good deal of trouljle results from neglecting the things that arc 
common, for which there is no reasoualtle excuse. For bad 
results, when new points are involved, there is sometimes 
reason for censuring lightly. The pioper securing of core- 
vents is one of the things too often neglected, and one for 
Avhieh the core-maker is not infrequently unjustly blamed. To 
show how easily castings may be lost through lack of [uoper 
attention, I will return to the subject of cylinder cores. 

At 7\.', Fig. 44a, is represented a core ready to be set in its 
piint, while at E it is represented st't in i)lace. This is no 
exaggeration, but an exam[)le from actual practice. Paste is 
often a very useful substance for assisting in securing vents ; 
but it should be used with discretion, or it may defeat the end 
it was intended to accomplish. Looking at the core /r, it will 
1)6 seen that the core-maker has made a good vent, but that 
the moulder, in setting the core, has stopped up the vcnt-hoUs 
■with paste, as shown at 2. 

The less paste that can be used, the better, as it is not only 
lial)le to clog up the vents, but also to blow, or cold-shut, the 
casting. My id(>a of the way to secure such cores is shown at 
II and F. Before permanently setting the core, it is set in its 
print to see if the side 11 will form a close joint along its entire 
length. Should it be found not to lit pro[)erly. it should be 
made to do so, either by liling or by building up the print with 




Fig. 44a. 



SECURING COKE-VENTS. 109 

loam or thick Mackino;. "When built up, if the hnilt-up pnrt is 
more tbau y thick, if the moukl is not hot, it should be dried, 
cither by using a hot iron, or in the oven. When ready, paste 
may be applied to the side that cannot be readily seen, as B. 
The paste should not be more than ^" thick, as, if the core is 
properly fitted, this is ample. Sometimes it may be advisable 
to put the paste on the mould ; and, again, it may be better to 
put it on both the mould and core. If both mould and core 
are warm, it is better to apply the paste to only one of them ; 
as by dividing it between both it makes a thinner body, and is 
likely to become dried before the core gets set, so as not to 
form a proper joint. Where both mould and core are cold, by 
dividing the paste between them there is not so large a body 
from which the print end of the core will absorb moisture, 
thereby weakening it before it is set in its print. In my prac- 
tice, I always endeavor to have either the mould or core warm, 
to dry the paste, when the core is set. 

A good mixture for paste is flour wet with black wash, which 
may be cither thick or thin, according as thick or thin paste 
is wanted. Clay wash may be used instead of the black wash. 
Both are good to keep the metal from burning away the paste, 
and finding its wa}' into the vents. AVherc there is danger of 
the paste coming to the surface of the mould, in places where 
it cannot be seen or come at to scrape off, I prefer the black 
wash, as it is not so liable to blow or cold-shut the casting as 
the clay wash. 

For setting cold cores in green-sand moulds, I prefer to wet 
the flour with machinery oil, as there is not so much danger of 
chilling or generating steam as there is when the clay wash or 
black wash is used. Rye flour is the ])est for i)aste, as it is not 
so sticky or clammy as wheat-flour paste. As regards the 
thickness or consistency of the paste, it depends somewhat 
upon circumstances ; but, as a rule, it should be so thick that 
it will not flow. 



110 SKCriUNfJ CORK VHNTS. 

AiiotliiT iiii|i(iiiMnt iioiiit in m.-iUiiiL: :in<l iisiiit; i»aslf is clcaii- 
liiu'ss. It is :i (•oiiiimni tliiiii; to we :i iiiouliler u.siii<i paste 
mixed in a diity pot. :iii(l coiilMiiiinj:; f<)r('i;j;ii matter sudi as 
dirt, sl(jnt'S, ete., aiul liard dried paste from tin; sides of the 
]i(it. Ill mixiiii; paste, tiie Hour should In- liiuly sifted. ;md 
the i)ot be eleaii and free from dried paste; also, neeessary 
care should he used to provide a<^aiii.st the iutroduetioa of any 
foreign matter whatever. 

At // is represented the core F, permanently set in its print. 
At V a space is left oi)en, which it is often advisal)le to do at 
the ends of the cores. The width of this space should not be 
less than -fjr'\ or more than y. In horizontally moulded 
cylinders, with valve face, it is generalh- objectionable to make 
the print ends of the pattern the same size as the print ends 
of the cores, as at E. In some instances, it is not practicable 
to leave a space, as shown at V, as there is no chance to get 
at tlie prints when the cores are set in. In such cases the 
pattern prints should be about ^" larger than the print end of 
the core-box ; and when setting in the cores, use just suflicieut 
paste to make a reliable joint. I prefer, in such instances, to 
use the paste only on the core, as at K. as there is not the same 
danger of the paste being forced into the vents as when it is 
also applied to the mould, as at 4. There is, of course, a pos- 
sibility of the paste being squeezed to the surface of the mould, 
as shown at E, b}- placing the paste on tlie core's points, as 
shown ; I)ut if care is used, the amount will be very small, 
if any. 

Setting cf)res in the way just indicated requires the exercise 
of skill and judgiiieiit, and the plan should be avoided when 
that shown at ]' can be employed. 1)V the latter plan, there is 
an opportunity to see what is being done, and a-rtainti/ is made 
to take the place of chance-work. 

When the core is being set in the print for the last time, it 
should l)e kept over to the side ]\ that thi' paste, shown at ZJ, 



SECURING COKE-VENTS. Ill 

« 

will not 1)0 scraped up, as at E, or squeezed down into tlie vent 
outlets at 2. When tlie core is down, it is then pressed tightly 
against the side S. The space V should then be rammed up 
with new moulding-sand, wet with beer ; or, if the mould or core 
is warm enough to dry it, loam or blacking daub may be used, 
as it will bake so as to hold the core more firmly. The advan- 
tage of the beer-sand is that no time is lost in waiting for it 
to be dried in a cold mould. 

To mix the beer-sand, take new, dry moulding-sand, and 
wet it with the beer, so it will be as damp as sand for making 
green-sand moulds. The reason for using the moulding-sand 
dry is that it may absorb sufficient beer to give it strength. 
AVheu blacking daubing is used, it is made by mixing blacking- 
dust (same as used for making blacking or for dusting greeu- 
sand moulds) with an equal quantity of parting-sand. When 
thoroughly mixed, the mixture is wet with medium thick clay 
wash. The clay wash gives body, and the parting-sand makes 
it open. 

This is a good mixture, not only for the purpose named, but 
also for patching up moulds and the joints of cores. I have 
used it for daubing up the joints of column cores cold, setting 
the cores in the moulds without drying. Whatever dampness 
may have remained was provided for by the porous character 
given it by the parting-sand. When used for patching the 
surfaces or corners of moulds, it is better for being dried and 
blacked over, as this insures a smooth surface on the casting, 
which might otherwise be rough or scabbed. 

To hold the small body of sand between the core prints, 
some use nails or rods, as represented at D. This is a poor 
plan. At W is shown a nuich better one, as it not only hulds 
the sand (irmly, but gives a solid print that will not be bmken 
in setting in or removing the core. It a4so helps to hold the 
cores in place. The plates (at W) are of iron, about I" thick, 
and long enough to project about 2" beyo'nd the ends of the 



1 IJ si:( riMN(; coin: vknts. 

juiiil. Tlicir (l''iilli is :il>()iil twice that of tlic jtiiiit. Tiu' face 
(•(iuc (if llic plates can ln! i\ept }" away fioni tlic pattern. 
They ail' generally phiccd upon a little sand sifted on it, the 
plates iieinii ^vet with elay wash to make tlie sand stick. 

In the larirc enirravinj; of the section of a hcltcd cylinder 
inonld, two pinns of sccuiin<jj cores are shown. \t }' is icpre- 
senti'd the plan 1 preft r. Niniicials 2, 8, and ('> sliow openings 
inadi" ill the llask opposite the exhanst and port-core prnits. 
^\'hen the cores are all set, and the outside joints donhled np, 
the oiien space T is rainnied n[» with sand. After the sand is 
raimiu'il up to the lir>t row of vent-holes, they are cleaned out, 
and short vent-rods pnt in tlu'ni ; then more sand is raniini-d, 
and the second row of vent-rods placed, and so on till the joint 
is reached. (These rods can all l)e placed hefore commencing 
to ram up if we avoid hitting them.) When the cope is on, 
the vent-rods are placed, and the sand is rammed throngh the 
opening i)rovidcd at N. 

Sometimes circumstances will not admit of the vents being 
taken otT through the cope. In such cases it is often advisahle 
to connect the upper portion of the core-vents with the lower, 
as represented in the top and bottom parts of the belt-core. 
(The bottom half of the l»elt-core is shown all black, so as 
to prominentl}' show the line of vents.) Where the cores are 
not made in halves, this is somewhat difficult to accomplish ; 
Init by referring to the article "Making and Venting Cores" 
([). lU(j), the plan of connecting and venting such cores will be 
understood. 

At J* is shown a iilan foi- taking off vents, which we niav lie 
obliged to use when tlie llask is not adapted to the job. or when 
the i)allern is not jiroperly made. 

A\Tu'ne\'er the joint of a mould must lie raised abo\-e the 
joint of the llask, as ;?hown at 7t, the more room tlii're is to 
mount a strong body of saiub the more likely it is to keep its 
form and to su[i[Miit the cores, etc. Tlii^ plan of moulding is 



SECURING CORE-VENTS. 113 

not al^vaj's objccliouable ; but unless there is room suflicient for 
the vents to be cared for within the body of the mould itself, 
and then all led off through one opening, there should be open- 
ings in the flask, as shown at Y, 2, 3, and 6. 

Taking off vents through the joint of a dry-sand flask, as 
shown at P, is by no means reliable. It would be much better 
to drill holes through the sides of the flask for the purpose. 

When the face of a cylinder is moulded as here shown, it is 
often advisable to have the cores form their own prints, similar 
to 7, 8, and 9. This plan saves work in rodding, and labor 
in setting and securing the cores. 

The exhaust core-box shown is a handy one for cores made 
in halves. XX show the sweep being used for striking out 
the circle portion. 



(aiEEX SAXl) MOULDIXf;. 



CASTING FINISIIKI) WORK HORIZONTALLY. 

In ;i previous arlic-lo is dcsfiilud tlie casting of a hydraulic 
lioist iu dry sand. In this the manner of niaivin<^a lonfror one 
in green sand will be deserihed. It may l)e asked, wliy, if a 
casting about twenty-three feet long could be made in green 
sand, one a]»out fourteen and a half feet long could not be 
made in the same way. It would be uureasonablc to expect 
that siicli eastings will be as perfect cast horizontally in green 
sand as if they were cast vertically iu dry sand. The longest 
one would have been cast vertically, had there been a foundry 
near by that had the facilities for doing it. The casting had to 
Ite made; and, as no one would cast it vcrticalh', some one 
must do it horizontally. The Cuyahoga "Works was selected to 
d(^ the job. The castings, when finished up, presented a very 
creditable appearance for green-sand work. 

The upper cut shows the dimensions of the casting, the dotted 
lines representing stock allowed for holding dirt and for finish- 
ing. The length of casting as taken out of the foundry was 
twenty- four feet two inches ; eighteen inches of which, as sliown 
at the gate end, was added as stock for holding dirt, and was 
cut off in finishing. The thin rib (31) was cast on as a dirt riser, 
and was also cut off. No. 30 was a flange used to assist iu the 
moulding; and. as it was a good thing to attach the pouring 
gate to, it was left and cast as shown. The reason for pouring 
the casting entirely from the end tliat was nyt to be finished 
was that ftuch gated cfistiDf/s Kill be the dirtiest at the gate end; 
iu fact, such gates, as a general thing, do not distribute dirt 
only in Ihe section io whieh tliey are attached. If one were to 
114 



CARTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 

5) 



11; 




I H» CASTINti FINISIIKI) \V()l:K IK )K I/,()N T.M.I.V. 

cast ail (>iK'n sand Mock liasinii such an iiiulcr LTalc, he would 
uitot likely sih' ucaily all llic <liit collcclcd in a liody direcllv 
(>\t'i' the uaU'. The ai-liou of the litjuid nielal foi'uis :i wliiil- 
jiool. as it wen- over the Ljate, tlierchy prcveiitiiijj; the dirt from 
llow iii^ away wilii the inetiil. A.s a fjeitend thiiKj, the portions 
fartltcsl from (/dies trill he the cleanest parts of (i cdslinf/. Tlieir 
cK'auliiiess will (k'|)end much upon the style of trate usi-d, etc. 

To fuilher discuss the iiii[>(iitan1 (|iicsli()n of piopcilv uatiu<_j 
moulds, the small cut, Fi^. 1(1, is ;^iven. At E is shown iiii 
under uate, similar to the one in the large engraving. The airow 
represents the How of metal. The core shown has pre\enteil 
portions of the dirt fiom rising to the top of the co[)C. At // 
is shown a style of gtiting that will not conliue the dirt to the 




Fig. 46. 



gate portion of the casting ; and, in fact, to correctly foretell 
where the greater portion of the dirt will be collected, is often a 
dillicnlt task. Such gates are distributors of dirt ^ while such as 
the one at E confine it. This is a point that must be eonsiil- 
ere<l in the gating of moulds, as it has nuieh to do with pro- 
viding tiiat the gated end of a casting shall catch and hoUl the 
gale's dirt. The gated end of such castings should contain 
about all of the gate's impurities. But I think the interested 
reader will plainly see that this will di'pend greatly upon the 
style of gate used. 

Another i)oint that may lie here noticed is the destructive 
(jualilies of the two stales of gates shown. Under gates, as at 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 117 

E, are, as a general thinp;, the easiest upon a mould ; as the 
metal in flowing is not allowed to run over the mould's surface, 
as it would from gate H. Surface scabbing or mould cutting 
is very liable to occur with the last-named gate, because of the 
friction of metal upon the mould. Under gates, as at i7, 1111 
up a mould with very little sufface friction, and are often the 
best to adopt. 

When under or side gates are used, so as to be independent 
of a cope, thus not allowing skimming-gates in the cope, should 
they be desired, the basin with the skimming-core upon the 
principle set forth in the chapter " Defects in Structural 
Casting," is advantageous, as it prevents the skimmings from 
passing into the mould. In fact, for all clean tuork, ichere it is 
practicable to do it, combining such sJdmming-basins with direct 
runners will always be a great assistance. 

As there was onlj^ one of these castings to make, the com- 
pany did not wish to go to expense of a complete pattern, so 
the skeleton frame shown was used. In making the mould, the 
frame was bedded in level and true ; and after being rammed 
up, and the joint made, the cope form of pattern was made by 
setting on circular pieces, as shown at 33, 32, 34, 35, 30, and 37 
(Fig. 45). Between these, sand was firmly rammed ; the whole 
being struck off with sweeps, as seen at F. Paper being put 
over the sand to form a joint, the cope was put on and rammed 
up. After being lifted off, the false sand pattern was then 
shovelled away, and the uowel part of the mould formed by 
strikes or sweeps, E and D. After the sweeping, the long 
sides of the frame, 38 and 39, were unscrewed and drawn off. 
The open space thereby left was then filled up with sand ; tlic 
circle of the mould being followed up by using a piece about 
two feet long, of the circle of mould, as at Y. This made the 
mould's circle complete up to the joint. The sweep guides, 
40, 41, 42, and 43, were then drawn, and their space filled up, 
atler which the mould was finished. The metal around the 



lis CASTINf; FINISIIKI) wnUK IIOinZON'IAI.I.Y. 

(•(lie wns (iiic-li.ill" inch tliicktT in tlic (■()[)(• tlirm in llic iiowcl, 
tlif half inch licinij; lor :i riser or s|i:icc for liohlin^ tlic <lirt. 
'J'iic extra sto( k was tiirnt'd olT in linishiii<; the ciistin^. 'J'his 
extra thickness was aMowed for in tlie niakinj; of the eirciihir 
cope guides, as rei)resented by 32, the outsitle line being ellip- 
tical, wliile the dolti-d line represents a true eirele of the retpiired 
linished siz.e. 

Another point of some interest is that of coring long moulds, 
where, through lack of oven or shop facilities, the centre core 
must be made in three separate lengths. The dilliculty attend- 
ing the splicing of such cores is in getting olT the middle core 
vent. The most reliable way I know of, to carry olT such core 
vents, is the one shown. AVhen making the cores, vent rods, 
4 1 and 4o, are rammed up in about the -centre of each half. 
Then, Avhen pasting the cores together, a connection, -IG, -47, 
48, and 49, is made. (AVith this job, 48 is not really necessary, 
as the ujjper vent is sufficient to take care of what is required 
to be carried olT.) "Where the connections are, there must be a 
reliable close jt>int ; for, if any metal sliould get in, you niJLilit 
ex[)ect a ''blow-up." In making the vents in tlie centre of the 
halves, as shown, instead of at the joint, as is generally done, 
there is less risk ; for, if iron does tind its way to the joint, it 
can do no harm, the parts where the connections are, of course, 
being excepted. - 

When the cores are butted together in the mould, two pieces 
of -J" gas tubes, T and K, are placed, the cavity for their in- 
sertion being cut out in making the cores. An end view of the 
cavity and tube is shown at section through S, K. After the 
tube is inserted about one inch in each vent hole, the rest of 
the cavity is carefully tilled up with new moulding-sand, whiih, 
if wet with beer, is all the better, as it will air-dry more solid 
than if the sand is dampened with water. The tubes are better 
for having a few \" holes drilled in tiieui, as tliis will allow any 
gas in the green sand used to escaiie. Before smoothing off 



CASTING FINISHED WOKK HORIZONTALLY. 110 

the green sand, it is well to vent down to the tubes with a fine 
wire ; the holes at the surface being well closed, the green 
sand is then oiled over. The balance of the work is treated as 
is commonly done. The cut of pattern, skeleton and mould, 
is shown wider than its proportion to length. This is done to 
give a better chance for figures, etc. The cut of the casting is 
proportionately sho\YU. 



IJO IIKAVV AND LIGHT WUUK SKIMMI.NO-GATKS. 



iiKAYY AND LIGHT WORK SKr:\r:\iTxn-r;ATr.s. 

As a supplement to the previous chapter, '• Casting Finislied 
Work Horizontally," the following will be found an interesting 
and valuable addition, in whieh Figs. 47, 48, and oO are plans for 
skini-gating heavy work. When one has from ten up to thirty 
tons of iron to pour into a mould, conditions in gating will 
seldom permit the use of such skimming-gates as are generally 
used for ordinary work. In pouring ten tons or more of iron 
through a gate into a mould, there can be no dribbling process 
allowed. The iron generally requires to be got iuto the mould 
as quickly as practicable. 

Figs. 4 7 and 4'J re|)resent plans of gat(>s which I have used on 
heavy woik with much success. While they act as skimnu'rs, 
there is n(;tliiiig to prevent their letting in the iron about as fast 
as if there were one direct gate from the basin to the mould- 
entrance. In Fig. 47 the metal runs down A, passing through 
JB to D. From D it goes through E to the mould. Fig. 48 is a 
plan-view of this gate. It will be seen that the gate B is so 
placed that it sends the metal iuto D upon a whirl. The inlet- 
gate E, being higher than B, as shown, admits of a good whirl 
being generated before the metal rises up to E. The inlet-gate 
E, if desirable, could be on a level with or below B. The best 
Avhirl is created by B being below E ; as, when upon a level 
witli E, its opening destroys part of the circle, thereby not 
permitting of as good a whirl being created as if the circle in 
front of B were complete as shown. 

In Fig. 4'J the metal passes down // to K. and from K to F. 
if and i^ are siin[)ly one straight gate ; the portion between // 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



121 



and R ho'iivr as deep again as at F, where it runs into the mould. 
A" being deeper than F, and having the riser R at its end. gives 
a chance for the dirt to be kept up above F; thereby allowing, 




Fig. 49. 




Fig. 47. 
Heal'!/ JTork Shimming Gates, 

after the start, clean iron to enter the mould. Tlie farther 
apart the uprights H and 7^ are, the deep part /l, of course, 
being extended also, the better the chances to catch and hold 



122 III.AVY AM) I.KMIT WOItK SKI.MMlNf;-OATKS. 

the iliil. 'riii> jilMiiis iiol rccoiiiini'iKlfil as l>(iiiL( as <io<h] as 
I'i^. 17 : for it lias ii(» whirl, and soiiu' dirt iiiny \>v admitli-d hiU) 
till' iiidiiM. I'spi'cially iiiioii the start. 

The ^ate sizes j^iveii aie only to present some idea as to their 
niativr i)rop<)iti()ii ; fo> instanee, IJ heini^ 7" diameter, will 
admit of the '.)}/' diameter tiatc vl, ereating a good whirl, and 
also gives JJ plenty of room to hold dirt. For [)raetieal work- 
ing the monlder will, of course, have to use his judgment as to 
the size of the gates in applying them to the conditions t<j be 
dealt with. While these gates may be used inside of the flasks, 
they are more particularly to be used outside ; which, for heavy 
work, is generally the best plan, when practicable, to adopt. 
Moulders who are accustomed to light work oidy, are. if given 
heavy work, likely to adopt the methods to which they are 
accust<^med ; that is, they think the same kind of a skimming- 
gate will answer all puri)OScs. These often fail, because they 
will not take the metal fast euongli. 

In heavy work the metal is generally poured duller than in 
light work ; and when we consider the amount that is run 
through the gates in not much more time than is taken up in 
pouring far lighter work, we must admit, that, in attempting to 
pour fi-om ten up to and over thirty tons of iron through a form 
that would insure a light casting coming dean, some evils will 
be likely to result. 

In light work there is a positiveness which it seems almost 
impracticable to obtain in heavy work. Skinnning-gates, if 
properly applied to light work, will assist astonishingly in pro- 
curing perfect and clean castings. One reason why heavy cast- 
ings are not generally benellted by skimming-gates is, that the 
moulds present such a large surface from which dust and dirt 
can be collected. One thing that should always be remembered 
is, that a skimming-gate only helps while the metal is passing 
into the mould, and tiial it has not the properties of a porous 
plaster for drawing out impurities (generated in the mould), 
which many seem to thiid< it has. 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



123 



Having, in several different parts of this work, referred to 
various styles of skimniiiig-gates, I will now notice a few other 
forms adapted for light work. Fig. ,30 is au elevation and plan- 



i-|!^3 




I Gnte 
PHttrrtv 



Fig. 51. 



Fig. 50. 



^^': 



r^ 







Small Work Shhnmi'uKj Gates. 

view of pouring with horn-gates attnehed to a skimming-gate //. 
This bowl // is formed cone-shaped upon its bottom, so as to 
give impulse to the whirl upon the start. If, at the start, a 



1 •_' I IIF.AVY AM) I, Willi' WORK SKIMMIN(; fJATKS. 

<f()(>(I whirl is foniiod, it will drive :iii(l hold the dirt in tlic oontrc 
ui JI, tlu-rehy luvvi-iitiiiii; it from cntcriiij^ thi' oiith-ls which 
connect with the horn-gates. The re.'ison for nsiiiLj the horn- 
gates is, that by their nse there is not such a direct current 
caused as would be were the gate level from // to the mouhl, 
whieh can, of course, he used with this skim-gate if it is so 
(h'sired. The less currcnt-iiilluences side-gates exert from //, 
the more whirl there will he, which is the main success of such 
a style of skimming-gate, 

A, N, and G illustrate the pouring of several pieces from 
one horn- or branch-gate, while T shows only one piece being 
poured. The bowl // is best formed by having a pattern 
rammed up when making the mould. There might be several 
sizes of such patterns, so that one could use the size best 
adapted for the piece or pieces to l)e cast. 

Did one wish to further increase the utility of the skimming- 
gate, the whole thing could be formed by i)atterii. as per sketch 
Fig. .01, The holes seen at each end are simply for the purjjose 
of holding and guiding the upright gate-pins, P and 7;?, while 
ianin)iiig up the cope. Several different sizes of these patterns 
could be made, either of wood or iron. If of iron, they could 
be cored out so as to make then) light ; and not only could they 
be used for forming the skunming-gate in the uowel, but in 
copes as well. The branch lines at B show where the outlet 
from 7/ should l)e cut. These outlets could, did one desire, l)e 
made as part of the pattern. As there shown, the whirl will 
be better preserved. While in Fig. oO two outlets are shown, 
cut from H, it is not advisable to do so if it can possibly be 
avoided ; for the reason that the whirl in 77 will be greatly 
lessened therel)y. With re£»i-ence to the proper proportion of 
such gates, ideas aie given (on p. 101, vol. i.. and on p. 17 
of this book) with which most readers are no doubt familiar. 
Any shop that has a line of small work which reciuires to be 
IJnislu'tl up should in some form or other have skimming-gate 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



125 



patterns, not only for the purpose of saving labor in cutting 
the gates ; but, as ever}' practical foundrynian knows, to leave 
the cutting of skinHuing-gates to the judguieut of most mould- 
ers produces a gate which is far from being a cleauer or puri- 
fier of metal before it enters the mould. 

The author's attention was lately called to a good thing in 
the line of a light-work skinnning-gate, patented by Richard 
Cross of Cleveland, O. The principles of the gate embody 
several good features worthy of notice and study. The gate as 
seen shows a side and a plan view of 
the pattern. They are made of differ- 
ent sizes, ranging from one suited for 
pouring a five-pound casting up to 
one for a casting weighing a thousand 
pounds. For heavier work two or 
three gates could be attached to a 
mould if desirable. The gate pattern 
is made of cast-iron, the inside being 
cored out so as to make them light for 
ease of handling. In using the gate, 
set it upon the mould-board in such 
proximity to the pattern as may be desirable. There are right- 
and left-hand gates, so as to still increase their utility. In 
ramming up the cope, the pouring-runner gate is set at the 
end of B. The cope being lifted off, and the pattern and skim- 
ming-gate drawn, a connection from K lo the mould is cut; the 
cutting of w'liich, and the setting of the skimming-core, are all 
the moulder is required to do to give himself a good skimming- 
gate. 

"When pouring the mould, the flow of the metal is illustrated 
by the arrows shown. The metal going in at B causes a whirl 
which prevents, in a great measure^ at the start, any dirt from 
passing under the skimming-core, and thence up into the mould. 
This is something our ordinarily used skimming-gates accom- 




R. CROSS. 
PATENT GATE 
Fig. 53. 



iJti IIIIAVY AM) T.KIHT WOKK SKIMMINT.-fJATKS. 

plisli lull fffldy. In tliciii ;ill. tin- liisl IIkw of iron rrpiicnilly 
• ■.•lilies more or less dirt witli it into llii- mould. 'I'lit* idea 
wliicli -Mr. Cro.is lias cniltodii-tl in iiis .skiiniiiiiiLr-t^ate is indeed 
worth noticing;. 

At V\<x. '>- are set forth soiiii' more ideas in <j;atiiiir that arc 
useful. The mould shown we will su|)[)osc to be :i Hat plate 
ie(iuired to he (inislied all over. There are two ladles to be 
used in ponrinix the mould. The end of the runner nearest the 
liouring-gate is formed by a skimmiiiir-giite eut in the eope. At 
Nos. 1, 2. '^, 4. ;"), and (J, arc seen what arc generally termed 
'• blind risers." These arc formed in the eope, as will be seen 
liy tile ji>iiit-rmi' F S. The lower jtavt of this long runner IVoiii 
which the inlet gates 7, -S, '.), and 10 arc eut, is made in the 
nowel, and is made the deepest at the skimming-gate end, so as 
to insure its being kept full at the end which admits the metal 
into the moulil. The gates 7, 8, 9, and 10 are supposed to 
lie cut thill, and of an area sufficiently small to insure their 
t;ikinu the metal no faster than the long runner, and gates P 
ami 7>, will admit of, keeping them full while pouring. This 
long runner might often have the blind risers, 1, 2, 3. 4, o, and 
G. omitti'd. Of course, by their use (if the gates P R are kept 
full) there is very little chance for any dirt that might escape 
from D (tr R finding its wa}' into the mould. In cases wher.- 
there arc many castings to make, did one desire to use such a 
runner having "blind risers," there often might be a pattern 
made ami rammed uj) with the mould. Also upon the toj) of 
these "blind risers" it might, in some cases, be beneficial to 
occasionally place risers which would extend up through the 
cope, as seen at 4, though as a general thing such would be of 
little practical value. In some cases the air passing up through 
risers (were it safe to leave them open) may make suHicient air- 
current to carry or float some dirt to the riser ; but, as a general 
thing, the dirt is more lir.ble to stay between or alongside of 
a liser, should it lie caught there through the upward rising 
of the metal. 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 127 

There arc, no doubt, nianv who cannot see the reason why 
the gates 7, iS, 9, and lU could not have been cut nearer to 
the skimnihig-oate DllP, thereb}' saving the necessit}- of cut- 
ting such a long runner as shown. Tlie reason for cutting such 
a long runner is simply founded upon the fact, tliat^ the longer 
the distance throvgh lohich iron is made to travel before it can 
enter the moxdd^ the better the chances for catching and prevent- 
ing the dirt from getting into the mould. This long-gate or 
runner principle applies towards cleanliness, the same as gating 
a casting, as far as practical, from the parts required to be 
finished; which is set forth in the previous chapter, "Casting 
Finished Work Horizontally." 

Often, in small work, when a number of small pieces are 
made in the same flask, should some of them require to be fin- 
ished they could have no better skimming-gates than to let the 
metal run through the other pieces into them, thus gating from 
one piece to another ; the piece which receives the first iron 
from the pouring-gate will naturally contain the most dirt. 

In pouring any casting requiring to be finishecl, the hotter 
the metal can practicall3- be poured, the cleaner should be the 
casting. Pieces gated or run from others especially require to 
be poured with very fluid iron, not only for procuring cleanli- 
ness but to insure a good full-run casting. 

In the first volume, reference is made in several places to 
the dirt accumulated in ladles, and pouring-basins or runners, 
and commonly called "impurities." Treating this subject 
scientifically, the impurities so rapidh' gathered upon the sur- 
face of skimmed ladles are chiej'i/ due to the affinity iron has 
for the oxygen in the air. When a ladle is skimmed clean, it is 
not long before a scum is seen to gather upon the surface of 
the metal. This scum which occurs from the oxidation of the 
surface of the metal will, as long as the metal's surface is 
exposed to the atmosphere, whether in the ladle or on its 
passage to the inlet-gates, be created. This impurity, coupling 



lliS lll.WV AM) I.ICllI WORK SKI.M.MlNf;-(;.\'l KS. 

with the (lust aud tva.shed sand, of pouriiiff-hnsifis or runners, 
is the reason why we are often Kni|iii.se«l at the aiiiotiiit of dirt 
enatnl in pouring iiioiiMs with IVesh. ( Ir.in. hkimnu-il ladU'S. 
The i'liiiction of the skiiiiininL'-gate is U) ealeh and prevent tlii.s 
dirt I'loin passing into thi- nionld. Of course, good skiinniing- 
gates will not eonnteraet the evils of nionld-scabhing, ete. ; Imt 
with intetligence used in gating, in eoneert with a well-uuide 
niuiild, surprisingly clean castings can be made. 





II rung i 



tivnal I'Utc nfT'ucc l^lute. 
I'igurcs^l'iti ish Size. 



tinpi 



\<ii'A — -16'' ^'4j< 2i- — 42^ o 




'::'.00aooo ^■».. ...... ........•.;•.;;_.■. 







Fig. 54. 



TOr-rOURING GATES. 129 



TOP-POURING GATES, AND SWEEPING A 
LATHE FACE-PLATE. 

A TnoKOUGH knowledge of the practical working, so far as 
results are concerned, of the different styles of gates commonly 
used, will alwaj's be a valuable acquisition to the knowledge 
required to insure clean castings. In previous articles, I have 
shown tiTe action and adaptation of various forms of gates ; in 
this article, I will try to present a few ideas concerning the so- 
called top-pouring gates. As a general thing, the merits of 
this gate as a valuable skimmer in pouring moulds are lost sight 
of through its use being more a matter of necessity in gating. 
JMany moulders use it simply for its convenience, and not from 
any knowledge or intention of its usefulness in making a clean 
casting. 

As a general thing, top-pouring gates act as a positive skim- 
mer ; for the reason that there is nothing to prevent the flow of 
dirt to the top of the basins, and the iron that passes into the 
mould being free from impurities or sulliage ; that is, if the 
gate is properly made. What I mean by positive is, that 
the principle is positive ; and, if the action is not so, the fault 
lies with the one icho makes the gate. I have seen some very 
grave errors committed by men who should have known better ; 
that is, if thirty to forty years' experience are worth any thing. 

To show \\\) some of the errors made in the construction of 
basins and top-pouring gates, the engravings (Fig. 54) illustrate 
a " Right " and a " Wrong " form. The basin marked "Eight " 
represents the clean iron dropi)ing into the mould, as seen at 
F. Upon the top of the basin iron, is shown the dirt. This 



l:;0 'i()i'-roruiN(i (;aii;s. 

cftiidilion will exist if i-vcry tliiiii: is inadc as it slK>nl(l lie ; l»iit 
it is astoiiisiiinii to note liuw small :i iiiatlcT will lU-stmy the 
jMtsitivc action of tlii' i^ati-. 

1 will first try to show soino of the errors made in this respeet. 
The first one is in the bottom of a lonij Imsin, which, instead 
of having an incline from the pouring-end down to the gate, 
as seen from P to T", is made to incline exactly the reverse, as 
fiom R to Y in basin marked ^^ Wrong." 'I'his causes the 
iron t<j run up-hill, which for long basins is often deliimental 
to keeping the gates full. 

If l)asins arc short, as seen at W in the small l)asin, tlu-n 
I would advise that they be made highest at the entrance of 
the gates; for, if they were the lowest there, ''cutting of the 
basin" might be caused before the gate could be filled. And, 
from the fact of their l)eing short, the gate should be easily 
kept full, which, if accomplished, avoids an}- use for an incline. 

Some differ with me in respect to my making long basins 
inclining from the liasin down to the gates. They claim the 
incline should be upwards, as seen in the long basin upon the 
left, in order to keep the dirt out of the gates (it the start. So 
far as tliis point is concerned, the author would say, he advo- 
cates the incline in long basins as an aid in keeping the gates 
full, a thing most paramount in making a clean delivering 
basin. "Whether a long basin-runner inclines up or down, will 
not prevent more or less dirt from entering the gates upon 
the start. About the only way to aid cleanliness in this 
respect is, to have the liasin with a skinnning-core, upon the 
priu(i[iU' shown in vol. i. p. 113, also p. 17 of current vol- 
ume. The time necessary to make a skinuning-core runner- 
basin is seldom available. Therefore we must utilize as I)cst 
we can oiu' liurried basiu-niaking ; and in such a case the 
points to be attained is, to make the l»asin so that you can keep 
the gates full from the beginning, and, at the .start, have no 
*• cutting of basins:" once accomplish this, and 1 care not 



TOP-POURING GATES. 131 

whether j'oiir runner is iucliniug up or down. My reason for 
showing the basin inclining is, simply, because I believe that 
in the long-run, by this, the best results will be obtained : an 
extremely steep incline is not advocated. In the basin shown, 
we have but 1" of a fall : all that is required is an incline suffi- 
cient to insure an easy fall. In some cases, the long part of 
the basin could have its runner-end T made level, the incline 
being only from the basin down to about one-half the runner's 
length. While this would, in some cases, be sufficient to insure 
a good flow, the level part, being near the end of the gates, 
would present a bottom upon which dirt might lodge, as the 
runner Avas emptying itself of its last iron, thus assisting iu 
preventing any dirt that might be inclined to pass down the 
gates, because of an incline causing a flow towards them. 

If a basin the dimensions of the one marked "Wrong" were 
used iu the place of the one marked " Right," in pouring such 
a casting as is shown, the result would be that the gates H, B, 
and S could not be kept properly full, and the dirt that should 
be kept upon the top of the basin-iron would nearly all pass 
into the mould. 

Still another eiTor in making long basins is not having the 
runner or basin-box level. I have often seen bad results from 
this hhinder. I remember a case where the moulder, when 
pouring his mould, could get but little iron to run down the 
gates. The cause of this was having the bottom of the runner 
inclined, as seen at Fand :K, and also the basin end J/, down 
very nearly level with the gates. Such an error as this could 
easily occur if the moulder were careless, or did not think. 

Another error, that is very commonly committed iu making 
small as well as large basins or runners, is seen upon the riglit 
in the four cuts showing the side aud plan views of short 
basins. In the upper cut, the basin is shown made larger 
around the gate than in the lower one. In pouring moulds 
with top gates, the action of the iron, upon runniug into the 



1:!-J TOl' I'orUlNO OATHS. 

mould, is to suck down any dirt tlmt may be directly over or 
near to the <fatt's. The more room around ;j;atcs in a Itasin, the 
ln-tti r aic till' clianct's for all the dirt to niiiMin upon the top 
of llic ircjn. In the large basins, at 6' and 7/, this point is also 
shown. In the cut marked "• Right," the runner or basin is 
seen to extend beyond the gates. Iron poured into l)asiii8 
rtows towards the gates and l)eyond them, if there is room 
allowed for its doing so. The flow carries with it the dirt; so 
that, if a basin or lunner is made {o extend l)eyond the gates, 
the dirt (or imi)urities) is also, in a large measure, carried 
beyond the gates, thus aiding in preventing the dirt from pas.s- 
ing into the mould. I don't care what shop that uses top- 
gates may be visited, one will be very apt to sec some of the 
above errors dail}' committed. To make top-gates positive 
imiiliers, or skinnners, is an easy matter, if a little connnon- 
sense is used. 

To show the ri'sults of proper top-pouring, the sweeping and 
])ouring of a nine-foot lathe face-plate are illustrated. The sec- 
tional view of face-plate is that of a casting made and used iu 
the Cuyahoga Works. Tiie dottetl line ovi-r the face represents 
^" thickness that was turned off in finishing. The casting was 
made by the use of the sweep and rib skeleton-frame shown ; 
and to the moulder who made the job, much credit is due, for 
any one in looking at the casting would hardly imagine that it 
was cast face up, it was so clean. 

In sweeping this mould, the spindle-seat being set, a good 
cinder-bed was put in ; after which, the hole being filled up 
level with the Hoor, a plain sweep (not shown) was then 
attached to the spindle arms (which also are not shown), and 
a i)laiu hard bed was swept up. 'I'he swt'cp bi'ing tlu-n removed, 
tlie b(.'(l was sh'L'ked and sprinkled with partiug-sanil, and the 
cope rammed up. The cope lu-ing hoisted otY, the sweep, as 
shown, was then attached, and the bottom swei)t out. 

It might be well to state, that before the i)lain or coi)e sweep 



TOr-rOITRING GATES. 133 

was attached, the bottom sweep was attached, and a rough form 
of the luould's bottom made about two inches lower than tlie 
intemk^d bottom surface. This space was then filled with 
facing-sand up to the level of the joint ; so that in sweeping 
out the mould, after the cope was hoisted off, the bottom would 
be all formed in facing-sand. The facing-sand, being taken 
out of the bottom, could be used for other Avork. 

After the sweeping was finished, the rib-skeleton frame was 
bedded-in, and eight arms formed. The sectional plan view of 
face-plate shows the number and sizes of cores set between 
each of the arms. The cores were made just the thickness 
of the mould, and were set upon the surface without the use of 
prints, as seen at E in the mould. It was, of course, seen that 
they all touched the cope in a firm manner, in order to prevent 
their moving when the mould was poured. 

B}' this plan, far lai'ger face-plates than the one shown could 
be made without a pattern ; and not only castings of this form, 
but many other classes of castings, can be made to have their 
cope face clean by an intelligent use of top-pouring gates. 



\M lllK MOULD-nOAKI) AM) l-LASK-IIINOE. 



SMALL CASTINGS. — TFTE MOULD-BOARD AND 

FLASk'-IILXGE. 

For tnrniiip: out small cnstiiiiis fast and neat, there is nctlnng 
inoiv essential than having inoul(l-l)<>artls that will save hand 
jonil-making. Tlu'rc are used as common property four kinds 
of 1)()anls ; the first l)eing tiie wooden, the second the sand, the 
third the i)laster-Paris, and the fourth the match lioard or plate. 
Making these is with some shops a common affair. whiK' with 
others it is the reverse. There are many mouldeis, who. were 
they told to make a match plate, or plaster-of-Paiis Ijoard, 
could nt)t do so without instruction. 

At the left, in cut. Fig. 55, is illustrated the making of plaster 
board. At the right is a section of the ])oard as completed. In 
making this board, the pattern is rammed up, and the joint made 
the same as if a cope were to be rammed upon it. Instead of 
the cope, a sectional view of a wooden frame is seen, the inside 
of which is even with the inside of the nowel. The joint should 
be made tight, so as to prevent leakage. The plaster is poured 
in through holes, K, K ; and w'hen set, or hard, the board \a 
lifted off, and the sand washed off the face of the plaster with 
watei' and a brush. After the face is dry, it is given a coat of 
laiup-bhick shellac varnish ; and, when it is dry, the board is ready 
for use. In making plaster boards, there are a few details which 
it may be well to notice. Plaster-of- Paris is made by I toiling 
or burning gypsum, a mineral consisting essentially of sul- 
l)liate of lime and water, the proportions being : lime, ."52. 5(; ; 
sulphuric acid, 4G.51 ; water, "20.1)3. (Jypsuin (b'ltrived of its 
water by burning leaves a powder, tliat, when mixed with its 



Cope 




Small Flash Hitigt 







Constructing I'laatcr Hoard jflustvr Hoard Cotmtlvtvd 

Fig. 55. 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-IIINGE. 135 

own bulk of water, formes a ereani}' paste which ahnost im- 
mediately becomes solid. lu using plaster-of- Paris, the li(iuidity 
of the mixture should be regulated by the thickness of body 
required. For thin bodies, two parts of water to one of plaster 
may be satisfactory ; but for general work one of plaster to 
one of water will be nearly right. 

lu preparing to pour a plaster mould, the outside of joints 
should be either carefully stopped up with clay, or firmly banked 
up with sand, to prevent leakage. If nothing but the water 
comes out, it is, of course, all right ; for much of that is 
disposed of, and if it does not leak through the joints it is ab- 
sorbed by the sand in the flask. The holes for pouring in the 
plaster should be as large as practicable ; for, the quicker a 
mould is filled, the better for filling thin places or corners. If 
a mould has any body at all, it will shrink so as to require 
being filled up after it is poured. Before starting to pour a 
mould, one should have plenty of water and plaster ; for it does 
not work very well to have to run away from the job to pro- 
cure either after a mould has been poured. With practice one 
can guess very nearly the amount of mixture required to fill a 
mould ; and It should, especiall}' for light-body moulds, be all 
mixed before starting to pour. For thick bodies we may par- 
tially fill a mould, and then complete the job by a second 
pouring ; but for general work plaster-of-Paris requires prompt 
and active work. 

The patterns used should be oiled, in order to prevent the 
plaster from sticking to them. In forming the joints, special 
care should be taken to insure that the mould-board will form 
a joint that will not only lift clean, but one that will leave a 
finless and true jointed casting. 

At //, H, H^ are seen nails driven in for the purpose of 
assisting in holding the plaster in place. In some cases, nails 
are driven all over the bottom boards, as well as at the sides 
of the frame. Again, some will, where there are heavy bodies of 



lol) rilK MOULD IJOAUD AND rLASK-lIlNGK. 

jdastcr to liolfK put in bars nailod to the frame, or sornrc to it 
.strips or Mocks drivi-ii liill of nails. 

I'lastcr lioanls aic onlinanly used only wlioro, from the 
crooki-dnoss of llie pattern, other l)ourds cannot lie as cheaply 
made, as perfectly fitted, or kept as trne when being nsed. 
^\'()oden boards, when for irregular joints and linely fittcil, are 
preferred l>y moulders ; as they arc generally light, will retain 
good edges, and can be moved with little risk of being broken. 

For irregular shaped patterns, there is prol)ably at tlie pn-seut 
time none more popular than what is called the '' sand board." 
The common way of making sand boards is simply to ram up 
the uowel hard and solid, and then, after making a good firm 
joint, ram up a false cope or frame. The kind of sand used 
for the boards has much to do with their life. Some take all 
new moulding-sand, mixed with aliout one to ten of flour; 
others will use no flour, but will wet their sand with thick clay 
wash. Samuel L. Robertson, a man of much experience as 
manager and journeyman upon light work, informed me of a 
receipt for the mixture of sand for mould-boards which he had 
nsed for making irregularly shaped patterns for Taylor & Boggis, 
Cleveland, O. The mixture is composed of fine sand, boiled 
linseed oil, and litharge. The sand should be very dry. 
To al)out twent}' parts sand add one of litharge, mix them 
thoroughly, and then sift the whole through a fine sieve. Wet 
Avith the oil to a temper of moulding-sand, such as would be 
nsed for moulding. This mixture is rammed the same as one 
would ram all moulding-sand. The board is left to dr}- for 
about twelve hours, and is then ready for use. The oil gives 
the sand firmness. The litharge is used as a dryer for the oil. 
It is not essential that all moulding-sand should be used : almost 
any sand of fine grain will do as well. Parting-sand, for in- 
stance, may sometimes be mixed with one-half moulding-sand 
to good advantage. Should there at any time be corners or 
edges broken, they can be mended by patching ou beeswax. 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 137 

In light work, the keeping of the joint edges of sand-mould 
boards sharp and unbroken, is of the utmost importance. A 
great many, to lielp preserve them, will nail all the joint 
edges : even then they will become ragged, and cause bad 
joint-work. The objection to plaster-board for fine work is 
about the same ; much working in and out of the pattern soon 
breaks the edges. The boards made with the oil and litharge 
keep their edges good and true surprisingly long, and it is on 
account of this that they are thought so well of ; and any who 
will give them a trial will, no doubt, be greatly pleased with 
the results. 

Alex. L. Faulkner, one of our Cleveland moulders, holds 
letters-patent upon an elastic follow-board composition, wliich 
I lately understand is being ranch used, and spoken very highly 
of. To some extent the above composition is like his ; but, 
from what I can learn, his manner of mixing and manipulating 
his composition makes a much superior " foUow-board" to that 
which the above will give. Any one doing a large business 
in light work will no doubt find it will pay them to investigate 
this matter. 

As an auxiliary to the fast production of small work, the 
match-plate is often used to good advantage ; the making of 
which, although a simple affair, is in the minds of some 
thought to be work requiring fine manipulations and measure- 
ments, the same as is required in the making of wooden match- 
boards. In Nos. 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 55), is illustrated the manner 
of constructing match-plates ; two patterns being selected, in 
one of which the indentation comes below the joint line, and 
in the other above it. 

At No. 2 the nowel is rammed up and joint made, F and E 
being the patterns. The cope, having been rammed up, looks 
as seen at top cut shown. The process so far is simply what 
one would do, were he makuig a casting from each of the 
respective patterns. As, instead of doing this, we intend to 



1:18 TiiK Mori,n-iu)Ain) and flask-iiinge, 

cfiiistitict a iii:il(li-|ilati', cxti'iKlcd iii:iiii|nil:it iods nrv n'(|uiiv(l. 
A^ llic iciUnii iiorliuii i.s iikhiIiU'iI, wlial is ii<»\v waiiti'il is U) 
mould tlic! plate pcirtioii. This is done l»y ltuil<liii<i np the 
joint as seen at 7'/*, tlicrcl)}' givin^jf whatever plate thickness is 
iiocessary for stnMiiz;th. The gates are cut the same as if the 
castings were to be poured l»y them. The cope is then chwed, 
and the mould poured. The match-plate, as seen at No. 1, 
illustrates its use in the moulding of castings from it. 'I'he 
cut shows the nowel rammed up, cope set on, and gatc-jjin ^1, 
in place ready for being raiumeil up. At XX are the cope- 
pins. This match-plate when nuulc had projections extending 
out beyond the plain edges so as to fit or make grooves for the 
pins to fit in, and make a true joint wheu the mould was 
closed. 

Should there be an}' overlapping of joints in the castings 
produced, the fault cannot be laid to the principle of making 
tin- match-plate: it will be the fault of shaky or untrue pins. 
This point, in making the match-plate as well as in using it, 
must be carefully watched, if true jointed castings are desired. 
Tu making wooden match-boards, of course different manipu- 
lations are required. The thickness of board is first made ; 
then, by measurement, which requires care and exactness, top 
indentations or projections are fastened over their correspond- 
ing parts. 

The match-board, or plate, is only practical for such work 
as is, in outline, plain and without acute corners, cores, or 
projections. In fact, of late years, since the art of making 
mould-boards, ])alterns, and gates has reached such perfection, 
the match-board or plate is seldom seen in use. 

Another device which is often found very useful in the fast 
production of small work is the " hinge." There are manj' 
d liferent styles used. The hinge is something that might be 
often employed to excellent advantage in the making of dillicult 
lifts, or in coping hanging indentations. The i>rinciples below 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 139 

set forth, I siinply give thinking the ideas maj^ prove of vaUie 
in some chisses of work. When tlie centre of the hinge is on 
a line with the centre or joint of flask, the lift, at the moment 
of starting, tends towards the hinge side, thereby clearing any 
indentations the soonest upon side opposite hinge. To more 
clearly illustrate this, the cuts "inward" and "outward" are 
given. At inward, the centre of hinge B is considerably below 
the joint. The moment this cope is started, the lift will be 
inward, as shown by the arcs SS. In the upper cut, on 
account of the centre of hinge being above the joint, the 
reverse would be true, as shown bj^ arcs BR. The distance 
of the hinges being so far below and above the joint, the arcs 
drawn from the centre of hinges show a true inward or out- 
ward movement, as the cope is raised or lowered. It is evi- 
dent from this illustration, that the matter of having a cope go 
from or towards the hinge side can be controlled, thereby 
assisting in getting good lifts when a movement in either direc- 
tion is desirable. Of course, the farther from the joint-centre 
the hinge is, the more rapid the outward or inward movement. 
The intersection of the line MN., with arcs cutting same, shows 
in w'hat ratio the given radius or outside of flask rises com- 
pared with the inside. This ratio increases proportionately as 
the radius, or width of flask, increases. 

The cut of flask hinges shows two styles that are handy for 
light work. The upper style is to be secured to the jpints of 
flask ; the lower one, to the sides. Either could be constructed 
so as to bring the centre of hinge below or above the joint, to 
cause inward or outward motion when first starting the cope, 
should it be desired. 



lll'KS, COKKS, AM) HOJ.LOW ril'K TAl'lKUNS. 



PIPES, GREEN-SAND CORES, AND HOLLOW 
PIPE PATTERNS. 

There nre few foundries that do not, in somo ff>mi. make 
more or less i)ii)es ; and it is astonisiiin^ to note how much 
faster the same class of pipe-wi^k will he made in some shops 
than in others. This is mainly due to the dififerenee in the 
facilities and rigging. In some shops, a man may have to 
work liardcr to make one i)ipe than he would in others to make 
four; and, as a general thing, the shop that could tin-n out the 
four would lequire the least skill. Shops that produce such 
castings the slowest are, as a general thing, the ones tiiat liave 
the fewest to make, and therefore cannot afford the expense of 
getting up labor-saving rigging. There are times wlien a little 
outlay in some shops would be the cause of procuring much 
work, that, in the end, might result in the manufacture of a 
good paying specialty. 

The general jobbing-shop way is to make solid, dried-sand 
pipe-cores. The extra expense made thereby is the requiring 
of flour, and sometimes beer or molasses, to mix with the sand. 
It also requires much labor to make them, fuel to dry them, 
and tlie loss of sand ; and after all the time, labor, and expense, 
we can seldom produce a perfect, round, even core. 

A plan practised in some shops that make a specialty of 
green-sand pii)e-castings is as illustrated in cut. Fig. 56, showing 
the sweeping of a green-sand core. This style of core is surd 
to i)roduce a round hole ; and. with rigging properly gotten up, 
one man can make a large number t)f cores in a day. The sizes 
of l)ipe generally made by this plan range from o' up to 12". 








Fig. 56. 



PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 141 

In making the core-arbors, there are two plans usnally adopted. 
One is, to east arbors having prickers, and the other, ribs, npon 
their snrface, to assist in holding on the sand. To show what 
is meant by ribs, the sections F and S are given. At A", and 
in longitndinal section of core, prickers are illnstrated. As a 
general thing, the ribs are used for the smaller sizes of arbors, 
on account of their making the arbors stiff, thereby preventing 
the core from springing up and shutting off the thickness of 
metal when the mould is poured. 

The larger arbors are in diameter, the more resistance to 
■ springing they generally have when moulds are being poured ; 
so that arbors over five inches in diameter can generally be 
made stout enough without the ribs. For holding the sand, 
prickers are to be preferred. The ribs separate, as it were, 
the sand into sections ; whereas the prickers keep it together 
more in one bod}'. The larger in diameter, the longer can pipes 
be made. A foot pipe could be some nine feet long ; a '6" pipe, 
four feet long ; and sizes between, in proportion. Of course, 
the stift'er arbors are made, the longer can the pipes be made. 
AVere chaplets used with this class of cores, as with dry-sand 
cores, they could be made much longer. There is a way 
whereby chaplets can be used with some green-sand cores : 
that is, to have a knob about one inch in area cast or riveted 
to the arlior, as above the chaplet X. This spot, being even 
witli the surface of core, rests upon the chaplet, thereby caus- 
ing iron and iron to come together. For the cope, a small body 
of sand is taken out of the core, and some small plates or 
washers inserted, the top surfaces of which had better be kept 
^" or so below the core surface. The space around these wash- 
ers or nuts is tlien filled ni, and the core then made as suKJoth 
as the rest of its surface. Upon tlie top of the inserted pieces 
the cope chaplet rests. In so chapleting cores, care is requu-ed ; 
for, should the chaplets come otherwhere than intended, the 
core would be burst, and the casting, as well as the arbor, 



1 \-2 riri'.s, (•(jKHs, and hcjllow rii-i-: rATiKUXS. 

most likely lost. "Witli such work, exact nic.isnrcincnt and (it- 
tiiiixs nn- ivciiiiriMl, With hiriic-diiuiictcr pipes, there iiiij^ht l>c 
(l;iii;^^r, l>y thus chapleting, of bursting the casting, on ar-coinit 
of the knob X, and the pieces above it, making a brace that 
would prevent contraction. .Sometimes there is no danger of 
the core springing downwards, but tlierc is a tendency to rise. 
When the lifting-strain of the fluid iron comes upon it in such 
cases as this, the bottom requiring nc^ chapht. the knob X 
could be upon the cope side, and the cores thereon be chaplett'd 
down, casting the pipe by having a chajilet only ou the cope 
side. 

The reason for using the washers or loose plates instead of a 
solid liody being secured to the arbors, as above X, is to alhnv 
the arbor to free itself. Were the top the same as liotlom, 
there would be immovable iron to iron. By having loose 
washers or plates, the jarring of arbor soon causes it to be free, 
thereby lettuig it come out. 

Core arbors should l)e well perforated with small holes, to 
allow the gases to escape. The thickness of sand upon arbors 
ranges from f" to 1". The more dry the sand can be practi- 
cally used, the better. In sweeping up a core, the process 
generally is to wet the arbor with clay wash or water, and after 
being set upon the horses the sweep board is set, sand is packed 
l^y hand upon the arbor, after which, with a man turning slowly, 
the sweep l)oard is lightly pressed forward until it strikes the 
gauge guide which gives the diameter wanted. The arbor 
ends, A II, can be used to give the diameter ; but having the 
core gauged independently of the arbor is to be preferred, as 
the friction of the turning will wear away the guide, and also 
more or less vibrate the arbor, thereby often causing the sand 
to droj). 

A i)oint that here might be mentioned is, that the less sleek- 
ing done to pipe cores, the better. In fact, it is l)est not to 
sleek them at all. leaving the suifaee as it is swept, as thereby 
the metal lies mure kindly to the core. 



PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 143 

In casting the larger-sized pipes, it is essential that the 
arbors should have reliable bearings. 3" up to 4" pipes could 
be cast by having sand print bearings ; but above this last size 
the arbor ends, A II, would be better if turned up true, so as 
to exactly fit the flask iron ends, as shown at M 31. The cut 
T T shows the end without the core in. The arbors being 
true, the flask ends would of course requu-e to be the same. 
By haviug arbors set in such bearings, it is evident that the core 
will be kept central, and that its weight cannot sink it down, 
or the liquid ii'on raise it up ; that is, as far as the prints are 
concerned. It might be well to mention that the pattern prints 
must fit into the flask ends when moulding the pipes, in order 
to have the mould central with the flask ends. In making 
arbors having such iron-end bearings, one, if not both, should 
be made smaller than the niside of intended pipe, so they may 
be readily got out of the castings. 

The longitudinal section of mould shows a flange on one end 
and a socket on the other. This is only to illustrate the idea 
that either kind can be made. In the smaller sizes of pipe, it is 
not necessary that the arbors should be larger at socket end, as 
shown at //. If the arbors are straight their entire length, 
and the sand reasonably tough, the little extra thickness re- 
quired to form the socket will hang. 

The plug seen at R is inserted for the purpose of lifting the 
core. AVhere arbors are large enough to admit a trunnion l)eing 
riveted on, as seen opposite 72, it is advisable to do so, as they 
can be revolved easier. Revolving arbors, b}^ having their 
whole diameter turn in a bearing, as seen at A^ cause much 
friction. 

The cuts of elbow and branch pipes illustrate the making of 
pipes with hollow patterns, they being the same as the castings 
wanted. At jB ^ is shown a sectional view of the pattern. 
The nowel having been rammed up, the core arbor P is then 
set in and rammed up. The cope part of pattern is then set 



144 rirF.s, corks, and hoi. low riri-; I'aii i:kns. 

oil, mill smikI tiii'kc(l ill. Tin- jninl Imviii;^ Iici'ii iiijuli-. tlir copo 
is rainiiifd up. and, after hciiiii lifted off, tiii' top pallfiii is 
drawn. iJy taking hold of tlii- ailior handles. Nos. 1, 2, and 
3, the eore is lifti'd out ; the bottom pattern is then drawn, and 
the mould finished. The core is then set haek. and cope closed. 
The end of arbor at No. 3 is of a style different from Nos. 1 
and 2. Arbor ends as at Nos. 1 and 2 are handy for small 
pi{)e. The arbor is set on the mould board, and the iKJwel half 
of the pattern over it ; then the nowel is rammed n]t and turned 
over, the arbor forming its own print. This style is not recom- 
meiidid for heavy cores, as it does not give print enough to 
hold uj) very much weight. 

The arbor as at No. 3 is of the same form outside the i)attern 
as it is iuside. To form prints for such arbors, with hollow 
patterns, there could be half-round blocks, as sliown in plan at 
B, rammed up with the nowel half of pattern, and tiu-n. wiu-n 
the nowel is rolled over, draw out the blocks. This would 
leave prints formed ready to set in tiie arl)ors. 

The quarter-turn pipe shows the plan of an ai'bor made so as 
to balance the core; the balancing wing i)rojecting beyond tlie 
mould prevents the back ll' from sinking down as it would 
were !)()th ends of arbor the same as at J\r, and the back not 
chapleted. This style of an arl)or can, of ct)urse, be operated 
as regards rolling-over and print-making, the same as the T 
arbor described. 

At yis shown a core rod, and core made upon it. The head 
D admits of the core being lifted vertically, and also is a sup- 
port to the core if rested upon its end. This class of green- 
sand cores can be used vertically or horizontally, and for pipes 
a1)out one foot long, 2" or '•>" in diameter, where their manufac- 
ture IS to be made a sjiecialty, they are worthy of consideration. 
The cores are rammed in a box I'udwise. and reciuire to be 
vi'iiti'd, fur wliicli, in some cases, it might l)e well to have two 
or tiiree vent holes drilled thiou'ih the head D. 



PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 145 

Green-sand cores, as a general thing, require more or less 
rigging, which is one reason why more shops do not use them. 
The holes formed by green-sand cores, as a general thing, for 
smootJiness and being true, surpass those made by dry-sand 
cores ; and generally thinner castings can be made with green- 
sand than with dry-sand cores. The making of green-sand 
cores often requires much skill. There are many cores being 
made of dry sand that could be made of green sand ; but, like 
many other things in moulding, it often requires practical ex- 
perience and good judgment to decide the feasibility of making 
them. 



IK) lti:i)l)IN(MN AM) liOLLlNG-OVEU. 



BEDDIXO-TN AND ROLLTXG-OVER. 

BF.nmNc-iN and rolling-over ptitte'riis in monUling have eaoh 
tlR'ir special advantage. As a general thing, rolled-over nionlds 
are the simplest to constrnet ; the reverse being the case with 
bcdded-iu castings, A moulder that cannot successfaUi/ turn 
out a good general run of casti7igs by roHhig-over need never 
attempt it by bedding-in. The writer is well aware that there 
are castings that cannot be as reliably made by rolling-over as 
hy bcdding-in ; but this fact does not change the sense of the 
statement made. It will be acknowledged by all practical 
moulders who have had experience in both rolling-over and 
bedding-in, that to do general bedding-in requires higher skill 
thau rolling-over. Any shop that does most of its moulding 
by rolling-over can often get along with less-skilled mechanics 
than where the patterns, as a general thing, are bedded-in. 

"When a moulder is furnished with uice patterns and flasks, 
the requirements are often like those of machine labor : the 
physical, and not the mental powers, arc the ones most 
required. Were there more bedding-in practised, ice should have 
more and better-six illed tradesmen. A novice, in travelling 
through the foundries of the country, would l»e at a k)ss to 
reason why sliops, in making similar castings, do not adopt 
similar methods. He sees one bedding-in almost ever^' thing : 
another he finds rolling-over every thing. In many cases, this 
puzzles even practical men to reasonal)ly explain. One can go 
into many shops, and there see i)atterns being bedded-in, that, 
all points considered, could be better rolled-over: then, again, 
he will find the reverse, there being large, expensive flasks 



BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER* 147 

used for moulds that could be made in less time and with far 
less risk by being bedded-iu. There is no doubt that upon 
this point there are sliops that are working in error. Almost 
every machinerj' foundry has some jobs, that, in point of 
economy and safety, would be better were they bedded-iu, and 
some that would be better rolled-over. 

Sometimes circumstances may be such as to call for a pattern 
being bedded-in when, properly, it should be rolled-over. This, 
however, is no excuse for the wide difference in shop practice. 

I have seen practical men, who, when questioned why they 
did not have certain jobs bedded-in, would say they knew it 
was the proper way to mould them ; but, having so little of 
that class of work to do, they did not like to have their shop 
floors all dug up. This is, no doubt, in many cases, a good 
reason for not bedding-in work. Shops in which, most of the 
work is bedded-in are, as a class, the dirtiest and ugliest to be 
found. It is practically impossible to keep them as clean and 
orderly as a shop that does all rolling-over. A foreman that 
loves order hates to sec his shop a jumble of holes, sand-heaps, 
and foundry- tools. He may, to some extent, control and keep 
order ; but to this there is a limit. It can be carried so far as 
to be a source of expense rather than of profit. My lot has 
been chiefly to be employed with the dirty class of shops. It 
has often made me feel envious of my brother tradesmen who 
work in the clean shops, to think witli what comfort they can 
work ; and I would long ago have been one of their number, 
were it not for the charm that bedded-iu and heavy work has 
for me. There is a fascination about beddiug-in, that many 
moulders enjoy. 

The advantage that bedding-in has over rolling-over is, in the 
first place, the saving of flask-making ; second, the rigiduess 
with which sides and bottoms of moulds can be supported 
against the strains of high and heavy heads of metal ; tliird, 
the assurance it often presents of making a casting the dupli- 



148 •uKDDINf; IN AM) KOMJNO-OVEU. 

Cite of the pattern in shape. The twistinir iiiid wnnehinf; that 
are <iiveii hirge (hisks in l>ein;>; turned over, often nmUcs it inipos- 
sihle to make a eastin<^ as true as its pattern. This point was 
ahl}' brou<fht out in an artiele 1)y " Foundryman," in "The 
American Machinist" of JNIarcli 10, 1H)S3, entith-d, " Monhling 
a IJevel Wheel." 

For the reader's bcncGt, 1 here insert the artiele as it origin- 
all}' appeared : — 

" How far the introduetion of machinery may induencc the 
art of moulding in a way to render results surer, and products 
more perfect, is as yet a matter of speculation. There are 
castings that iu some localities are moulded and cast without 
much regard to the duty to be performed by them. Take, as 
an illustiation, gearing. It is claimed that gears moulded by 
machines are nearer perfect than those made from whole pat- 
terns rammed up and east in the usual way. 

" The common method of making moulds for gears is to ram 
u]) the drag or nowel, turn over, ram up the cope, remove cope, 
and draw the pattern, etc. This method will do for gears that 
arc 18" or less iu diameter, and for wooden patterns up to 20" 
diameter ; but I believe that it is a practical impossibility to 
make a true spur or bevel gear 24" or more iu diameter by 
' turning over.' 

"There are several reasons why. First, It is impossible, or 
rather impracticable, to make a soft bed to receive the cleats 
of i)attern-board so that, when rolled over, all parts of the 
cleats and corners will bear equally on the bed ; and w here it 
bears lightest, the mould will settle, and produce a casting out 
of round, and the teeth at that particular place will be larger 
than those wlicre the sand has not settled away from the 
pattern. 

" Second, Tn turning over the drag when rammed up, as in 
common practice, the luwer side of llask (if square and of 
wood) bears on the lloor, and is compressed ; and w heu on the 



BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 149 

bed it sprinfTs out, leaving the sides of flask free from sand. 
When the eastini;; is poured, the pressure forces tlie sand out 
again, leaving tlie casting out of round. These imperfections 
may not be so radical in character as to condemn the casting, 
but the wheel will not run with the same accuracy as one 
bedded-in and not turned over. In many shops this fact is 
well known, but the writer has been in others where the above 
remarks were as pure Greek. As an illustration : A bevel gear 
about four feet diameter, for a horse-power machine, was given 
to a new hand in a shop to mould. He put his bottom-board 
down good and solid, then levelled u[) drag, and proceeded to 
bed-in the gear. 

" The proprietor came in, and, seeing the moulder's way was 
a new one to him, told him he had been at considerable expense 
to make a follow-board for that wheel, so as to get a true cast- 
ing, and he would like to see it used. The moulder asked him 
if he ever made an absolutely true wheel. ' Not exactly true,' 
was the answer ; ' but much better than by any other way, 
excepting j'our present plan, and that I never saw before.' 

" Says the moulder, ' If this gear is not true when cast, it 
will be because your pattern is not true.' When cast, and put 
on the boring-mill, it was found to be true, and acknowledged 
to be the only true wheel ever cast from that pattern. 

' ' Bevel gears of light rim suffer more than spur gears in 
rolling-over. 

"Now, one important reason why machine-moulded gears 
are nearer true than those made by whole patterns is the fact 
that thej' are not turned over, and the contents of flask wrenched 
and twisted in the process." 

It is amusing to see how some moulders who have never 
done bcddiug-in go about such jobs. Not very long ago a 
moulder who thought himself a first-class man started to work 
under my supervision. I gave him a pattern, with instructions 
to bed it in. He said, if he had a flask to roll it over, he could 



1."jO HKDDINO-IN AND UOI.I.INfl-OVF.U. 

ninke it in Ii:ilf the tiino. My answer was, that we di'l nr)t 
make a practice of niakiiii; c\|>cM.sive jiasks, that conld he 
saved liy l»e(Ulin<:f-in ; especially so where there was only one 
or two of a piece to make. He started at the jol» ; and at tlio 
end of abont two li(>urs he pnt on his coat, remarkin<r to a 
monlder tliat he was not Cooing to work in a shop where they 
had to lie npon their bellies to make a monld. The tronlile 
was, he did not know how to bed-in, and would williniily have 
kept that position all day if it would have given him the knowl- 
edge which his conceit pieventcd others from giving him. 

Among moulders who bed-in, there are two i)lans that arc 
often adopted. One is to jwund down a pattern, and the other 
to tuck it up. This pounding-down business I do not approve 
of. In the first place, it causes a mould to be the reverse of 
what its condition should be (a point which is fully treated in 
vol. i. p. 2H) ; in the second place, it abuses a pattern ; and in 
tlie third place, although it may often be a quick process, it is 
not by any means a mechanical one. 

Any hull-head can sledge doicn, bid it requires slill to tuck vp. 

There are a large number of patterns that can lie either 
sledged down or tucked up ; the one shown in sketch being of 
that class. In sledging down such patterns, the process with 
some is generally to first dig out a hole, and fill it up with 
sand " riddled through the shovel," then sift on about -k" thick- 
ness of facing-sand, on top of which set the pattern, and on 
top of this the block, without any regard to which way the 
grain of pattern timber runs, as shown in Fig. 57. 

Then sledge down the pattern until about level with the sand- 
bed ; that is, providing the pattern holds together. There is 
no intention to here convey the idea that a sledge should never 
be used. There are very few patterns that can be bedded-in 
without the use of one. "What is condemned is the uncalled- 
for abuse so often given. 

To properly tuck up such a pattern, the hole is geuerall}' dug 



BEDDIXG-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 



151 



out ivbont 3" deeper than the pattern, and the pattern is placed 
accurately upon four blocks or wedges, as at B ; or, the four 
bearings may be sand-mounds ; Avith the hand, sand is tucked 




under the pattern, faciug-sand being used against tlie ilanges, 
after wliicli the pattern is drawn, and the surface of the mould 
felt all over, and any soft spots found filled up with facing- 



1.V2 i!i:i)i)iNc;-iN and U()I,i,in(;-()VKk. 

sMiid. A lliickncss of about ]" f:icini;-san(l in then siftod on 
\ho siiifncc, ;iii(l tlu' iiiittcni ri'tiiiiitd. A slt'(l;io and Mock 
.■ire llicii iiit('lli;^cntly used to knock it down altout 4"; after 
uliicli the sides XX ail' rammed up. the joint scraju'd off, and 
the initteiii siiihtcd to SCO if il is out of wind. This completes 
the licddinii-in. 

WhiU' tile forcnoinir. in sulistance, i.s one proper w.a}- to bed- 
in, I \\ill dwell ii[)()n a few details sho^'ing different ways of 
handling such jol)s. Some, in tucking up such jolts, especially 
if the bcjss is not looking, will use all facing-sand for the 
insidi'. Others will use all connnon heap-sand, and when the 
pattern is drawn they will press lacing-sand against the sides; 
and after sifting i" thickness, or such a matter, over the sur- 
face, the i)attern is knocked down to its bed. Some, again, 
will draw the pattern up to examine if all jtlaces are firm and 
of an even hardness. 'I'here is a great difference in the ability 
of moulders to make a firm bed the first time : some will have 
to draw out a pattern three or four times before they can get 
as firm and reliable tuck as others can obtain by once drawing 
out. 

Before gomg any farther, there are two points which I would 
call especial attention to. The first is the rapping-down of 
tucked-ui) patterns. Before a pattern is first drawn, the guid- 
ing-sUikes should be driven so as to be a guide in showing how 
much the pattern is to be knocked down. At E the stake is 
shown driven, having its top even with the top of pattern, 
there being one of these stakes at each corner. "When the 
l)attern is returned, it is readily shown how much it should be 
])ounded down. I doubt if one-fourth of the moulders ever 
make any calculation upon knocking down a pattern. Some 
of them ixKuid until the pattern will go no farther, and others 
won't impress it enough. Eveiy piece that is bedded-in should 
have a limit to its impression into the bed, and the moulder 
should use his judgment as to what that limit is. The majority 



BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 153 

of moulders can toll, by feeling a mould, whether it is too hard 
or too soft. This is certainly an aeeoniplislnnent, but it would 
l)e a better cue to know how and when tliey were making it 
hard or soft. The second point I would like to call up is 
shown at D. This represents a plan which a few moulders 
have, of facing the sides of tucked-up moulds wnth facing- 
sand, — a ver}- good plan too. It is simply cutting out a 
piece of the side of the mould at a time, and then, by means 
of a board Z>, ramming up the cut-out place, as at *S', with 
facing-sand, until the whole side is rammed up. This plan for 
heavy work, where sides or flanges cannot be gotten at to ram 
them solidly up with facing while the pattern is in place, is a 
good one to adopt, as it gives every chance to make a firnj 
surface when the pattern is withdrawn. There are many pat- 
terns where portions of level beds can be used to assist in 
bedding-in, the plain surfaces of the patterns resting upon the 
beds, and the irregular parts being tucked up. Wherever a 
levelled bed can be used, it should be, as there is no way that 
a mould's bottom can be controlled and made so reliable. 

Although levelling a bed is a simple affair, it is astonishing 
what a small per cent of our moulders know how to go about 
it ; yet to accomplish it requires no great skill, as will be seen 
by the following. In levelling a bed, one side, as F, should 
be first levelled up, after which set the opposite one, P. Then 
upon the top of each and at one end, as seen, set a parallel 
straight-edge (by parallel, I mean that it must be exactly the 
same width at each end, not 6" at one end and 5^" at the 
other) . The straight-edges F and P do not require to be par- 
allel, but N must be if a level bed is wanted. With the 
parallel straight-edge, level across from F to P, then try the 
level on P ; and if it should not be level, make it so by raising 
or lowering the end at P. Then test the straight-edges by 
going over them all two or three times if necessary. Another 
point to be watched is the level, which in a foundry soon gets 



IFA 1JK1)I)1.N(J IN AND lUJLLlNC; OVKU. 

out of triitli. The way to test a U'vcl is to turn it on<l for oixl. 
If it shows li'v«l one way, an<l not anotlit-r, it is out of truth. 
Tiic only way to use such a level is to turn it enil f<»r end, ami 
make the bulb stand the same distanee from the eentre mark 
eaeli way. 

Under the strai<iht-ed<res shown arc four wedjjes, represent- 
ing what should be sand-mounds. The middle portion of the 
straiuht-edges should be kept elear until they are levelled up, 
after Avhieh tuek under them, and then test them again. Level- 
ling straight-edges having a Ijearing their entire length, eauses 
a loss of time and extra labor. The holes seen in the straight- 
edges are- to luing- tlieni u[t liy, something that is not always 
done. 

The six holes seen in tlie pattern, l)eing bcdded-in, show a 
provision that ought to be allowed in many patterns to give 
the moulder a ehance to tuck them up. A pattern to be used 
for roUing-ovt'r woik, and one for bedding-iu, should seldom 
be made upon the same plan, although they generally are. A 
jxittern to be bcdded-iii shotdd be well braced, and made of good 
strong lumber; for the reason that bedded-in patterns have to 
stand more or less sledrje-pounding , and where they are like 
a holloio box it is often impossil)le for the moulder to make the 
bottom of his mould as solid and reliable as it should be. 




'eeder 


E 

•■ f 


Y 


If r^ 


/ 


mi 


j Cope 




Cry- " . 


unnvr 






1 

^J II t iers 
J Oitttt I 

tw Ult(,'llt^ 






58. 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 155 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN- 
SAND MOULDS. 

The proper coping, venting, and jointing of moulds is very 
essential to the production of good castings. Many castings 
have their beauty ruined by an xiglij joint. Irregularly shaped 
joints in a mould will test a man's ability as a moulder about 
as sharpl}' as any thing connected with moulding. 

Some moulders will make such joints without the use of any 
judgment^ while others adopt proper methods. The results can 
generally be seen, in both instances, in the castings produced. 

In the engraving, I have endeavored to show a right and a 
wrong way of making the joints of irregularly parted moulds. 
As a rule, the larger the body of sand to be lifted, the better 
the chances of successfully lifting it. The trouble is with the 
fine or small bodies. These fine bodies often require consider- 
able manipulation ; and the precaution of not having fine bodies 
or points of sand to be lifted, w'henever they can be avoided, 
should always be taken. 

It is astonishing how many moulders practise jointing irreg- 
ular patterns as marked " w-rong " in the engraving (Fig. 58). 

In machinery moulding, irregular surfaces of joints are gen- 
erally lifted by the aid of " gaggers " and "soldiers," or by 
rods and nails ; the gaggers and soldiers being used for plain 
surfaces, and rods and nails for points and corners. 

If a joint can be made so that gaggers can be squarely and 
evenly placed, and so rammed upon it, the chances of obtain- 
ing a good lift are improved. It requires but little penetration 
to see, that, in the engraving, the part marked "right" pre- 



Staked {^-IJt^ 



/ 




y 'f 




/ r ^ 

r I , 



-^ ■:::. 



■fev 



Fig. 58. 



l.'i; cnrixf;. VF.XTTXf;, ani> .ioiniim; r;ui:i;N sank .Mori.Ds. 

sfiils a licltcr lioltiiMi ii|i<)ii wliicli lo set j^ajif^tTH than tlic part 
iiiaikiMl *• w loiiLr." 

To lift a \nn\\ ol'sauil, nr a joint, tlie less sainl tluie is uikUt 
(li(> piLTLjcrs, the Itetter. Hoiiu'times j(»iiit-<^aii:;4ers are set with 
IK) sand under tliein ; hut this is not ^i-nerally to lie approved 
of, as it does not make a neat joint, and niii:;ht, in case of 
straining at the joint, cause the mould to " kick." 

AVhen it heconu's necessary to patch a joint, from not get- 
liiiti a good lift, it is usually very tlillicult U) get it as perfect as 
it would otherwise have l>een. Sonu'tinies the pattern can he 
set on the cope to assist in getting the n-ijuired shape ; but 
even tlu'U it can seldom he accurately done. 

The best-jointed castings are those where no joint-patching 
was required. The word patched should generally be connected 
with hntched; although it is easier to botch a job than to patch 
it, and some moulders who will do a good job of patching are 
far from being botchers. 

At X, F, and N xa shown a plan of setting lifting-bars, that 
I, for two reasons, seldom approve of. The first reason is, 
that it compels the placing of the flat side of a bar parallel with 
the surface of the iiattern, thereby often necessitating ramming 
and holding a thin, flat body of sand in its place. In ramming 
sand in such narrow pockets, the best judgment must be used. 
Tf the sand is rammed too hard, the gases will not escape 
freel}', and scabbing or blowing will be likely to result. An- 
other objection is, that when it is necessary to roll the cope 
over, the thin, flat cake of sand is likely to drop off, unless 
securely " rodded." 

I always try to have bars for lifting out pockets, or carrying 
hubs or other projections, arranged so that there will be a con- 
siderable body of sand around them. This not only lessens the 
danger of bad results, but gives more room for ramming up 
and for seeing what is being done. 

The second objection to using bars in pockets as above shown 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 157 

is, that setting the gaggers is inconveniently clone, and the 
danger of a "■drop-out " is increased. 

In this cut, three ph\ns for making deep-pocket joints are 
shown. 

At A is represented a plan that will give a free lift, but 
involves setting many gaggers, and unhandy ramming. At 6 
and 9 is shown how this plan of barring causes gaggers to be 
set, which makes the ramming awkward, marks the joints, and 
does not securely hold the sand. 

At B the joint is made more nearly vertical, by which the 
above objections are to a great extent removed. 

In making a joint for such partings, the more nearly vertical 
it can be made, the better : 4" slant to a foot in height will 
generally work satisfactorily. 

At K. the irregular line, is represented a plan sometimes 
resorted to on the plea of lack of room, poor tools, etc. The 
plan shown is a very poor one. 

Numerals 1,6, and 9 upon the left represent lack of jndg- 
ment in trying to lift a body of sand. The gaggers seem to be 
set on the theory, that, if they are only gaggers, that is all that 
is required. The sand at 9 would be more likel}^ to be lifted if 
the gagger were not used, as its length is only about that of the 
body of sand to be lifted, and iron is heavier than sand. 

Nos. 1 and 6 represent conditions not much better. No. 1 
shows how eas3' it is to put one clumsy gagger where it will do 
the least good, or where there should not be any. 

K I could not have bars as at JE" , and it were necessary to set 
a gagger at 1, I would keep it up about 3" higher, and turn the 
toe of 8 the reverse of what it now is, so as to bring the point 
of the gagger under the bar towards the hub. 

The hook shown on 8 is generally made only on wrought-iron 
gaggers. It is often serviceable for carrying heavy liodies of 
hanging sand. In some shops, wrought-iron gaggers are used 
almost exclusively, while in others cast-iron ones have the pref- 



loS roi'iNf;, vKN'riNO, and .loiNrixf; rjUKKX-SANi) mot'lhs. 

croiicc. AVliilo I prefer those of cast-iron, for {General use, as 
they will not spring, are eheaper to make, and can he readily 
broken olF to any desired iengtii, I also like to have some 
wronii;ht ga.if'];ers, as they can l»e heiit to set npon slanting 
snrfaces, etc. 

I am aware that some will object to breaking gaggers, and 
that in some shops the rule is that they shall not be broken ; 
but l)efore 1 would allow them to l)e left sticking out of a cope, 
as at () (wlu-re tliere are none short enough to be found), I would 
have them broken so as to come no higher than 5. Gaggers 
sticking up, as at C, are lialjlc to be hit, resulting probabh- in 
losing the casting. I never allow gaggers to be left standing 
above the cope, if it can l)c possibly avoided. 

Gaggers 4 and 5, in connection with the bars as at E ^ repre- 
sent good practice. Gagger 2 shows how gaggers are some- 
times badly set by the side of deep hubs and flanges. 

No. 3 represents a better plan ; and if the cope is to be rolled 
over, use more gaggers as the height of ramming increases. 
The points of gaggers against the flat surfaces of hubs, flanges, 
etc., cannot do the harm flat surfaces can when set as at 2 ; 
that is, by producing hard and soft spots in the mould. 

The ramming is also an important factor in getting good lifts. 
The ramming of a body of sand to be lifted should be firmly 
and evenly done. In the cut, at the point marked " Copes 
staked," may be seen the marks of the rammer impressed in 
what should l)e a level joint. In some cases this would pre- 
vent the sand from being lifted, even though well barred and 
gaggered. 

In making irregularly jointed snap-flask moulds, the joint is 
generally the point of particular importance. Fins on such 
castings often condemn them. With this class of work, a per- 
fect joint will, in most cases, provide for a perfect casting. A 
good bench-moulder pays especial attention to his flask-pins : 
he sees that they are uot loose or shaky, and that they fit true. 



COriNG, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 159 

Floor-moulders have so many other things that claim their at- 
tention and time, that the joint seldom gets the attention it 
deserves. It is apt to be thought, if the casting is all right with 
the exception of the joint, that a chisel and file will soon fix 
that. The quicker such ideas are got rid of, the better. 

A floor-moulder should take the same pride in the joints of 
his castings that the bench-moulder does. 

In small work, there are two objectionable joint features. 
One is the fin, and the other " overshotness." In heavy work, 
the fin can seldom be avoided, but overshotness should always 
be. 

The stake marked "Ring" shows how stakes are often 
driven, thereby providing for bad lifts and overshot castings. 
The stake on the opposite side is driven correctly. The ring 
on the stake is made by cutting off pieces of wrought-iron pipe 
of the proper diameter. They are good for protecting the stakes 
from the blows of the sledge-hammer. 

In staking flasks for ordinary work, at least two-thirds the 
length of the stake should be driven in the ground. Some- 
times, for greater surety, it is advisable to drive two stakes, 
one behind the other. 

• With good sand or plaster-of-Paris mould-boards, the skill 
and labor of making partings or joints are saved. It is where 
joints must be made by hand, that the skill of the moulder is 
tested. 

With some irregular light mould joints, it is often advisable 
to start up the pattern when the joint is nearly completed. 
This will show if all parts have been made so that the pattern 
will draw freely. The pattern is then to be lightl}' rapped into 
its bed, and the joint completed. Then the cope is rammed and 
lifted, and the pattern withdrawn. 

To still further insure getting a "good lift," it is often a 
good plan to airange for rapping the pattern before the cope 
is lifted off. This is done by having rapping-plates on the 



IGO COI'INO. VKNTINC, AM) JOINTINC fMtKEN-RANn MOULDS. 

pattoni, if of wood ; f»r luiviii'^ liolcs in the ii:ittcin, if of iron. 
Then, wln'ii r:iiiiiiiiiiij; np tlic cope, rain up i^ati-.s in IIil' holes; 
and then, with a pointed l»ar set in the; pattern holes, it can he 
lightly rai)i>ed in all directions. This is a i»lan adopted l)y 
most bench-nionlders, the onh' dilTerence being that their rap- 
ping is generally done through the same gate-hole as that by 
which the mould is poured. 

"With copes where two or more men are required to lift them, it 
is often a good plan to raise the cope an inch or two by slightly 
raising a corner at a time, inserting a wedge to hold it up. 

Again, it may be advisal)le to raise one end or side at a time ; 
but in either case the corner, end, or side should be raised only 
a small distance, — sometimes not more than ^^" at a time at 
first, — which distance can usually be increased at each succes- 
sive lifting. 

In order to assist in getting good lifts with a crane, iron 
starting-bars arc sometimes placed as shown. Usually the 
first starting of the cope is the most important. If it is started 
so as to jerk one side up before the other, the most careful 
gaggei'ing, ramming, etc., will have been of but little avail in 
giving a first-class lift. 

There are two more points upon which I will express an 
opinion, and which may be of interest to those moulding heavy 
work. At F, in the lower cut, is represented a plan of cutting 
fins, which may be new to many. Of course, fins are objec- 
tionable, and should be avoided upon light eastings, and upon 
heavy ones where the joint is on the casting-surface, as in col- 
umns and similar castings. But for heavy castings, where the 
cope surface ends at the joint, or the mould does not project 
up into the cope, as shown at P F, and also for bad or heav}' 
drawing-})atterns. cultiug fins is often advisable for two reasons. 
The first is, tliat in diawing heavy patterns the joint of the 
mould is to a greater or less degree started. This may 1)0 
sleeked down, but to get the benefit of any doubt it is often 



COriNG, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN SAND MOULDS. 161 

wise to cut for a fin. Of course the idea is, to be sure the 
cope does not touch the mould at tlie joint's edge. The fiu 
should ruu from the surface of the mould back from 2" to 4", 
■wedge-shaped, as shown. The thickness of the fin at the mould 
should be determined by a consideration of the degree to which 
the mould is started in drawing the pattern, and to some 
extent by the temperature of the iron to be poured. For dull 
iron, the fin should be thicker than for hot iron. For safety, 
and to assist in getting good heavy castings, they are usually 
poured with dullish iron. In pouring dull iron, the upper edge 
or surface of the casting is likely to be wavy, presenting the 
appearance of cold shut. Cutting a fiu at the edge of the cast- 
ing is, to some extent, a remedy' for this ; as it assists in the 
escai>e of confined gases and dust, or permits them to be held 
in a space, which if the metal does not fill no harm will be 
done. Observmg moulders know that an open sand casting 
can, by pouring with dull iron, be made from ^" to \" thicker 
than the mould, for the simple reason that the top edge runs 
rounding, allowing the surface to run higher than the edge. 
Coped castings would run rounding in the same way, were it 
not for the fact that the head pressure forces the metal into 
filling the top edges ; but this head pressure is sometimes 
insufficient to fill the edges. In the case of a mould in which 
a fin is cut, the chance of the above occurrence is measurably 
lessened ; and, the thicker the fin, the greater the extent to 
which it is lessened. 

The sides and under portions of moulds are often vented 
direct from the sui'face of the joint, as on the side P. Vent- 
ing as at S is not always reliable for heavy castings, because 
there is a chance that the metal will get into the joint ; it also 
makes the management of the joint laborious. On the side F 
is represented a far more reliable way to vent such moulds. 
AVhen the pattern is rammed up to within from 4" to 6" of the 
joint, the side is then vented, and fine cinders placed as shown. 



1(')2 roi'IXC. VI'.NIINf;, and .lOINIINf; (lUI'.KN SAXT) MOT'I.DS. 

'I'lu' rciiiaiiHlrr tiC the (Ii'|illi is tlicii r:imiiic<l up, riml xnitrcl 
down into lilt' ciiidcis, luj si^iis ol" joint vents hein;^; vi.siliK'. 
At T is shown how the vonts arc carried away from these 
einders hy a row of vents made from the joint snrfaee to 
the cinders. In some cases, tiiis phui will work well without the 
use of joint cinders, by venting down vertically from the joint 
surface, and stopping up the holes so they will not be seen ; the 
vents T, being thickly inserted, will indirectly bring the verti- 
cal side vents to the joint surface as shown. 

Sometimes, to make joints more secure, and to keep them 
free from vent-holes, channels of cinders might be connected 
with the joint cinders shown, and led out as far from the 
mould as desired, and connected with surface outlets, which 
could be done by ramming up vent sticks, or by digging down 
to them after the mould is readj' for pouring. 

The cinders shown arc placed very near to the pattern sur- 
face, so they will cover the side vents. Placing cinders so 
near a surface may sometimes be objectionable, because they 
weaken the surface of the mould so that the head pressure may 
strain the casting. In case of apparent danger from this 
cause, the cinders ma^' be kept l)ack 4" to <S" from the pattern 
surface ; and l)y making a gutter the vertical vents can be con- 
nected with it by oblique vents. The wire for these vertical 
vents may be \". It should never be allowed nearer than 2" 
from the surface of the pattern, and should be kept parallel 
with the face of the pattern. 

If the moulding-sand is cla)'ey or too fine, it is sometimes 
advisable to vent vertically, in addition to \" wire vents, with 
^" wire ; the vents being near together and within about 1" of 
the face of pattern. In fact, this last-named plan will always 
help to assure good results, the only objection to it being that 
it takes time to do it. 

Some sands are so open that the sides need be only vented 
with the line wire. "When this is the case, the venting is done 



COriNG, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 163 

at each alternate ramming until the top of the joint is reached. 
If it is not advisable to carry the vents off by cinders, as shown 
at T, they can be taken up direct through and off at the surface 
of the joint, b}' reaching them with ^" oblique joint vents. 

Another plan sometimes adopted is, to carry the side vents 
down to a lower cinder-bed (when one is required under the 
mould). Hy this plan, the gases, which would rise naturally, 
are forced down. A mould will not fi'ce itself so easily when 
vented in this way, as when the gases are permitted to rise. 

In venting very deep moulds, that require hard ramming to 
prevent straining, I recommend that every other course be 
vented with ^" wire, and, at about every 18" of depth, make a 
gutter about 4" from the face of the pattern. From this gutter, 
vent straight down to the lower stratum of cinders with a f" 
A'cnt wire. Small oblique vents can also be made between the 
vertical vents ; care being taken not to touch the pattern, which 
might permit the iron to find its way into the large vents and 
fine cinders. This oblique venting, however, will seldom be 
required if all the space between the large f" vents and the 
pattern is well vented with the ^" vent wire. Cinders placed 
near the surface of a pattern, as is often necessary to carry off 
vents, should be no larger than those that will pass through a 
^" riddle : cinders any coarser than this will permit a mould to 
strain. Fine cinders, when rammed and surrounded by sand, 
present an astonishing resistance to pressure ; and are not only 
good for carrying off vents, but they will not admit leakage of 
.iron through vent holes, filling up and destroying their air-pas- 
sages, as coarse cinders will. Coarse cinders should seldom be 
used unless making bottom cinder-beds : even then, when they 
are required to support much strain, they are often better cov- 
ered with what would be called fine cinders. Coarse cinders 
are generally so called when they are larger than egg size. 



let T1UA\VIN(J AND MAKING i'ATlliUN.S. 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTKIINS. 

TiiK complaint of niouhlors nixainst pattorii-niakcrs, for lack 
of \ii\n-v to liicir pattci-iis, is often jiistilialiK-. A irrcat many 
]>at(('in-maki'is work as if tlu'y wiMf liou.st'-joincrs, or were 
makini; tool-chests or children's toys, onl}' occasioniUly getting 
an idea that they are working for the foundry by sechig a dirty 
moulder i)ass them. AVhy pattern-makers will not give suf- 
ficient tai)er to patterns, when there is nothing to [)reveut it, is 
a question that has often puzzled many a moulder. The attain- 
ments of the pattern-maker in the way of draughting, and in 
working wood into various forms, count as nothing with the 
moulder if he constructs patterns that will not draic icell. The 
moulder's skill is proved by having a '■'■ gjod cast ;" the pat- 
tern-maker's (if he only knew it), by having a '■'■ good draiv." 
To have corners, edges, or portions of moulds started or broken 
through ill-drawing patterns, is not only very aggravating, but 
is often the cause of defective castings. 

Another point is the hammer al)use that patterns receive. 
]\Ioulders are called destructive because patterns are pounded. 
If we are destructive, the pattern-makers are greatly to l)lame 
for it. Give us patterns properly provided with draw screics or 
irons and rapping-holcs, and of a good taper, and our acquired 
practice of unmercifully hammering every thing that comes 
along will very soon be lost. 

Before patterns can be drawn, they generally recjuire to be 
loosened. To accomplish this, the moulder must do some ham- 
mering. Some one may suggest the use of a pounding-block, 
to preserve the pattern. As a general thing, this is used when 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 



165 



practicable. The pounding-block cannot always be used to 
loosen a pattern, because it frequently only causes vibration. 
To loosen and to vibrate are different things. The loosening is 
required before starting to draw. The vibration is the second 
requirement, or that necessary to lessen surface friction or 
adhesion when drawing the pattern up. 

Arrangements for loosening patterns are seldom provided. 
Let one go through almost any machinery-pattern warehouse in 
the country, and he will find the patterns scarce having good 
provisions for preserving them from the effects of the "loosen- 
iug-bar " and hammer. "What rapping-holes are seen were 
most likely first made by a moulder with an auger or a pointed 



fo 


o 


°^ 


o 


O 


o 


f \, 


o 


0/ 


r"' 


— 


, 


^ 


\'i/, 


,:\f. \ 



Joint 



1'' 
Fig. 59. 




Fig. 60. 



iron bar. In a short time the holes become so large, you can 
hardly see any pattern. It is proper for pattern makers and 
owners to take some of the blame for abuses of patterns, and 
to provide for increasing their durability. The expense of 
inserting iron rapping-plates in wooden patterns is but little ; 
and, were the custom once established, the benefit derived 
would soon be seen. 

Rapping-plates should be placed so as to jar the whole pat- 
tern. This will often necessitate the building-in of more lumber 
than is necossarj' for making such shells as are often turned out 
and called "patterns." Rapping-plates can be either cast- or 



IGO 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTFJINS. 



wrouglit-iron, niul made in wliatcviT fsliape the form of pattern 
may rcMiuiie. For soiik' iialtcnis, the idea given of a ea.st-irou 
l)laU', ill FIlj. ;")'.), will work well. The size shown is that which 
would lie bnitable for hiri^e patterns. For small ones, the size 
coukl, of course, be decreased. Some pattern-makers go so 
far as to make a practice of inserting draw irons or jtiates. 
This is an excellent plan. But, if the pattern is one to ie(piire 
much rapping, there should also be a raiiping-plate. Jn some 
cases, the draw and rapping holes may both be in one plate. 

For such patterns as small gear-wheels, and others where 
there is no room except for a small plate ou the hub, the draw- 





Fig. 61. 



Fig. 62. 



plate should be the one. Then the moulder can both rap and 
draw the pattern with the same draw-screw. Patterns arc as 
likely to be destroyed from the lack of draw-plates, as they are 
from the lack of rapi)ing-plales. 

It is sometimes said, if the pattern has a weak spot, the 
moulder is sure to drive his draw-spike or screw there. lu 
some cases this may be true. The moulder generall}' tries to 
insert his spike or screw where it will best balance the pattern : 
therefore, should the weakest spot be there, in there, of course, 
goes the spike. Too many patterns are made without provision 
for drawing them. 1 have used patterns that, before they could 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 167 

be got out of the sand, would be — and the mould as well — 
literally torn to pieces. 

I will admit, that sometimes moulders are thoughtless regard- 
ing where they drive draw-spikes, or place screws ; but what 
class of tradesmen would not be, under the same circumstances? 
Our patience is often sorely tried b}^ labor and grief caused by 
the negligence of pattern-makers. Could we cause them as 
much extra laboi' and trouble as they often cause us, I think 
they would try to accommodate, and study more to assist the 
moulder. 

In small work, the facilities for expeditiously drawing pat- 
terns are much better than for large work. This, in a great 
measure, is due more to the moulder than to the pattern-maker. 
Small-work patterns are generally under the moulder's super- 
vision, because of their being chiefly made of iron or brass. 
All parts are given sufficient taper to insure their drawing well ; 
and, where assistance can be given in steadying the drawing, it 
is generally done. In Figs. GO and 61, two ways of doing this 
are shown. Fig. 60 shows the common way of using steadying- 
bars ; while Fig. 61 will, to many, present a new idea, which, 
although only adaptable to a narrow range of work, is, never- 
theless, worth notice and thought. The principle was first 
brought to my notice through the kindness of Samuel E. 
Hilles, of S. C. Tatum & Co., Cincinnati, 0. As seen at K^ 
the runner part is made round. In the plan-view, at SSS, 
are shown the brazed gates, which unite the runner and pattern. 
In drawing the pattern, the end, as seen at H, is simply lifted 
until tlie whole surface is clear of the mould. The runner /i", 
being round, acts as a fulcrum for the pattern to roll upon. 
For such work as sewing-machine legs, etc., this device could 
often be used to advantage. In heavy or large patterns, the 
moulder does not have the facilities for conveniently drawing 
his pattern, the same as in light work, not because it is not 
possible, but because the foundrymau, in heavy work, does not 



1G8 DUAAVIXn AM) MAKINO PATTERNS. 

have llio iiiniin^fiiiciil of liis )ia11t'ni-in:ikiiig lo ro |Trpat an 
exti-nt as in Ii;j:lit work. 

E J'J, Fit;. <i"i, shows a simple draw-iron (liat, coiiM and shouM 
be used to draw up many deep-sided pattcins. Once in a while 
it is seen upon a pattern, Init often where it should he seen it 
is ahsent. Numheis of patterns have l>een pulled apart, 
moulds Iti-okcii, and moulders enraged, through the lack of a 
few simple draw-irons. Missionaries desirous of suppressing 
evil thoughts and swearing could accomplish much by placard- 
ing pattern-shops with the words "Taper" and "Draw-irons." 

Now, I do not wish to be understood as thinking moulders 
arc all perfection. I have seen much " smart Aleck " business 
among moulders, regarding the df\^ign of 2'>o.tt€rns. There are 
man}' who can show great moutli-wisdom, and find fault with 
details when patterns are completed, which, in reality, are so 
far above their conceptions, that they have not the least idea 
of the dillicultics attending, or the thought and skill required 
in making them. One never hears such men approving any 
thing. They 0|)en their mouths only to find fault. 

Instead of finding fault with patterns, we often ought to feel 
thankful they are as handj' as they are. It is no trifling matter 
for a man to take the general run of drawings, and therefrom 
conceive, and fully plan in his mind to perfection, all the details 
of a pattern. The pattern-maker often does well, when we take 
into consideration what he knows al)out moulding, and the con- 
ditions under which he does his work. If they would only give 
us "good drawing," and patterns readily "rapped," I would 
never say a word. 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 169 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

Skin-drying moulds is a term applied to green-sand work, 
where the surface of the mould is blackened over similar to the 
process in dry-sand work, and then surface-dried. 

Skin-drying is generally done for the purpose of giving 
stability to the surface of the mould, and for assisting in the 
peeling of solid castings, as anvil blocks, etc. There are a few 
shops that practise it with lighter work, solely for the purpose 
of giving their green-sand castings a " diy-sand skin." Then, 
again, some shops find it necessary to skin-dry much of their 
work, because of the nature of their sand, which has but little 
body to withstand the heat and wash of metal, or contains too 
much clay. 

In skin-drying moulds, much judgment is required ; for a 
plan that will answer for one mould will seldom do for another. 
Not only have ways and means to be devised for drying, but 
the nature of the sand has to be considered as well. A sand, 
to work well, should, when dried, present a firm porous crust. 
Some sands, on account of their weakness, must be mixed with 
some substance that will give them a body. For such purposes, 
flour, beer, molasses- water, or clay-wash may be used. "When 
flour is used, it is mixed in the proportion of one to twenty up 
to one to thirty, according to the quality of the sand. The 
beer, molasses-water, or claj'^-wash may be used in connection 
with the flour in place of water for wetting the sand ; or the 
flour may be often omitted, and the sand be sufficiently strength- 
ened by aid of the above washes. 

Sometimes sand, because of its closeness, requires some 



170 SKIN l>ItV!N(J (iUKKN-SAND MOULDS. 

sharp sand mixed with it in order to make it work wrll. AVhile 
some sections ])ossess mouIdin^-sand natnrall}' adapted for skin- 
drying, others do not; and tlierefore more or less ''doctoring" 
will he reciuired to make it work properly. 

In using the above mixtures, it nnist l)e understood, they are 
used as a facing : all required is to have it face the pattern from 
1" to 2" in thickness. For a backing, the " heap-sand " is used. 

"Where copes are skin-dried, tliey sliould, as a general thing, 
be well ''gaggered," and sometimes nailed, as the drying of 
their surface forms a crust tiiat may easily drop off unless held 
up by the gagger support. Some moulders practise nailing the 
sides of moulds that are over G" deep ; and this practice is not 
one to be condemned, as it will often result in obtaining a good 
casting. The gates and sections of the mould where the metal 
first enters are generally the points that should at least be sur- 
face nailed ; for in skin-dried moulds, if the surface once gets 
broken, the under crust soon washes away, for it offers but 
little more resistance tlian so much dry dust would. 

Skin-dried moulds demand that all joints be well finned, for 
the least touch may readily cause a crush. There is no class 
of moulds that require more delicacy in handling, for its surface 
is a crust that has but little union with the body of the mould. 
Some moulders will not even trust to the nails for holding the 
portion at the gates : instead, they have cores made the shape 
of the mould, and ram them up with the jjattern. This is the 
most relia))le plan to adopt to prevent the moulds from cutting 
at the gates when there is a quantity of iron to be run through 
them. The facing for skin-dried moulds is, as a general thing, 
worked or used a little damper than facing would be for com^ 
mon green-sand work. After a pattern has been drawn, and 
the mould finished up by using beer or molasses-water for 
swabbing purposes, the next process is that of blackening. 

In blackening a mould, two plans may be adopted. One is 
to blacken the mould in a way similar to that used in a dry- 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 171 

sand mould : the other is to rub the blackening on dry, and then 
after sleeking to go over the surface with molasses- water or 
beer, the molasses-water being the better of the two. Rubbing 
on the blacking is of course only necessary upon the sides, etc., 
of the moulds, where a sulHeiently thick amount will not adhere 
if shaken out of a bag. The blacking can be put on with 
camel's-hair brushes. The two plans of blackening may often 
be advantageously used upon the same mould. The plan of 
rubing the blacking on dry, and going over it with the molasses- 
water or beer, does not dampen a mould's surface as much as 
blackening the mould with all wet blacking, similar to the 
blackening of a dry-sand mould. The reason why these two 
plans of blackening will sometimes work together is because, 
in drying the mould b}' pan or sheet plates, etc., there are some 
parts which will naturall}' receive more heat than others : by 
using judgment in dampening the facing, in connection with the 
adoption of the modes of blackening, all parts of the moulds 
are more apt to become dry at about the same time ; while, if 
the fire acts much upon some one part after all others are dr}-, 
there is danger of some places becoming bui-nt, which is avoided 
if all the parts become dry at about the same time. 

After a mould has been blackened after the plan of a dry- 
sand mould, some make a practice of sleeking them. This is 
not the safest plan to adopt in every case. By sleeking the 
wet blacking, a smoother casting may be produced ; but unless 
very carefully done, there is more or less danger of the sleeking 
causing scabs. If blacking is used thin enough to not clabber, 
and the coats are put on with fine camel's-hair brushes so as to 
show no streaks, castings will result about as smooth as if tlie 
moulds were sleeked, and the danger of scabs caused by sleek- 
ing is avoided. 

In skin-drying moulds, methods must be adopted best suit- 
ing the work in hand. For instance, some moulds, such as 
anvil blocks, etc., may be dried by setting in them a square 



172 SKIN-DUYTXO fJREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

or round kettle; then, nijain, some moulds may ho dried by 
means of Jhit, oblong, ov scjiiare puns. Often there are nioidds 
where neither of the two plans will answer, because they are 
so shaped that the kettles or i)ans cniniot be well used. Thin 
sheet-iron plates perforated with small holes are often used by 
laying them over the mould. This plan is, as a general thing, 
seldom used when kettles or pans can be utilized. 

'i'hc fuel general!}' used for drying is charcoal. In firing 
with it, the heat thrown off should be mild and steady, espe- 
cially upon the start, since too strong a lire is apt to blister or 
buin the mould. Sometimes the cope and nowel may be dried 
together, by having the cope propped up clear of the nowel, 
and the the between them. Then, again, the mould may be 
such as to admit of its being closed while being dried, the riser, 
etc., being left open to let out the steam. Greeu-sand cores 
are most advantageously skin-dried by placing them in an 
oven ; and, as in drying the moulds, the heat should be kept 
mild and uniform. 

To ascertain if a mould or core is dried deep enough, either 
cut a small hole into the surface with some shaip tool, or press 
the surface with the fingers. The hardest places to diT by pans, 
etc., are the corners. The sides of some moulds might be 
burnt to pieces before the corners could be dried. To get the 
corners dry, it is often necessary, after pan fires have been 
taken out, to place some hot coals around or in the corners, or 
to dry them with hot irons. 

Ik'fore a novice undertakes a difficult job, he should have 
practised upon minor jobs, which, if spuiU^d, entail but small 
loss. Experience, coupled with judgment, is necessary, to be 
successful iu drying moulds so as to turn out good castings. 



SETTING AND CENTllING CORES. 173 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 

If there is an}' one thing that a macliinist dislikes, it is bor- 
ing out holes that are not cored centrally. And Avhy a moulder 
cannot always set cores ceutrall}', is something of a conundrum 
to him. Moulders can sometimes make excuses, and are gen- 
erally ready to take a cast-iron oath that the core was set right, 
which the machinist, of course, cannot dispute. Still it will, I 
believe, be acknowledged by nearly all moulders, that excuses 
for^ores out of centre are about the worst kind of excuses we 
have to make. When 30U get a moulder so that he cannot say 
any thing, it is a sin to torment him further ; but it isn't often 
that you will get him there. 

Why it is that all cores cannot be set centrally, is something 
that cannot be fully explained. To set a core centrally or 
straight, does not generally call for any great mechanical skill. 
What is more demanded is care and thought. 

The accompanying engraving may assist in showing why 
some holes do not come central, and perhaps afford some help 
in setting cores. 

The cause of holes being out of the centre is not always on 
account of the cores not having been set centrally. There are 
many things, such as uneven closing of flasks, bad-fitting flasks, 
ill-lilting cores, etc., any of which may result iu crooked holes. 
Some readers of "The American Machinist" will remember 
about four years back discussions upon core prints. To my 
mind, the elaborate systems that some writers advocated had 
but little to do with what prints are practically used for. Prints 
are for no other purpose than giving bearings and holding 
cores. 



174 



SKTTINf; AND fKNTKIXO PORKS. 







Gate otrt 
rcitt Rod 




Jivttuin linting 

Fig. 63. 



And whether bottom core prints are tapering, as seen iu 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 175 

"Third core," or straight as shown in all the others, has but 
little to do with the holes being out of the centre, which 1 think 
is a vital part of the question. The top prints are the essential 
ones, and even they often have but very little to do with poor 
holes. As a general thing, long top taper prints afford a 
better chance for the cores to accommodate themselves to their 
centre. For long cores, where there is uncertainty about meas- 
uring, such prints as are shown with "First core" are reason- 
ably certain of providing for a true hole. This form of a print 
is the most reliable one that can be used, as with it the moulder 
can see whether the core is iu its right place or not. In fact, 
by the use of such a print, it would be a hard matter to get the 
core out of its centre. Some may think that such prints should 
always be used ; but they are objectionable from the extra 
labor and time which their use involves. It may be said that 
there is no gain, if, through the quicker plan, the casting is 
lost. But all castings are not lost : it is only the ones that are 
wanted in a hurry, that we generally lose. 

The cause of man}- crooked holes where the popular common 
top-tapering print is used, is as illustrated at "Third core." 
As a general thmg, nearly all pulleys, gear wheels, etc., have 
either feeders or pouring-gates on the hub. These holes break 
away, or weaken a portion of what should be a firm, true, sound, 
tapering print ; and the core leans to the weak side, with the 
result shown. 

There are a few moulders who always close such moulds as 
the above, with the gates in place, as shown at "Second core." 
By this plan it is evident that much of the risk is lessened. 

The gaggermg and nailing around the second core is another 
safeguard against the core crowding the print to one side. 
Another point that will bear looking at is that of the taper 
ends of cores. A large numlDcr of foundries make all their 
common sizes of round cores, without having the taper end 
formed. Then, again, a large number of shops make their 
cores having the taper end on them. 



17li .Sl'.IlINd AND CliNIKlNf; COKMS. 

I'ilinir :i 1:i|kt on cores is often very olijc* lionalilo, cspo- 
ciiillv wlitii iltHic l>v a <-:iri'lrss nionldiT. A fair illiistiulion of 
cuivli'ss work of lliis kind is slmwn on coif />. // <i central 
hule is ijot ivilh such a cure, it can't lit; chanjcd t<> ijood inamuje- 
ment. 

A careful moulder, wlieii filinif a taper print, will compare 
his print and core together, as .seen at I<\ thereby making a 
core that is likely to fit and fill the female print S. 

Cores made with taper prints arc often one-sided from being 
laid down upon plates to iby ; allhouuh .some. \>\ nailing the 
heads, or packing sand under to hold them up. will get a very 
fair tapered head. 

In some shops, in ordi-r to get good round straight cores, 
they are dried in half-round iron lioxes of the same diameter 
as the cores. This is the only reliable way of making true 
taper-end round straight cores. The plan is an old one, and 
the cause of its uupopularity is the expense of making the 
cast-iron l)0xes. 

At £", L), 11, and at the square, are shown the methods 
generally employed in setting and centring cores. With the 
exception of £", the plans are popular, and call for no couunent. 
i^ is a plan whereby cores in such moulds as green-sand pro- 
peller-wheels, and others having no points to measure from 
satisfactorily, can be centred. The plan is simply the driving 
of three or four stakes outside or away from the mould, before 
the pattern is drawn ; the stick E being placed against the 
pattern print, and all the stakes driven the length of the stick 
away from the print. The core, when set by the same stick, 
will of course occupy the same position in the mould as the 
print occupied on the pattern, and therefore, as far as centring 
is concerned, must be right. The plan is applicable in other 
ways than shown ; and, while the idea may be old to some, it 
will be new to many. 

The carrying-off of such core-vents thiough the cope ia 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 177 

often the cause of weakening top-prints, and also the cause 
of blow-ups, from metal getting into the vent. To avoid this 
danger, it is often the better plan to carr^' off the vent through 
the bottom board, or b}' running a long vent down into the 
moulding-floor, as in the case of bedded-in moulds. 

Some will say, That is all right, providing you have a cinder- 
bed under the mould. I have carried off the vent of cores as 
large as one foot in diameter, and more in length, by simply 
driving a ^" vent rod down three or four feet in the sand below 
the mould. Green sand, where you have a large body, is capa- 
ble of carrying off and holding more gas than is generally 
thought ; and to such as have never tried this plan, I would 
say : " Do so," for I know they will find it an easy and good 
way of carrying off ordinary-sized vertically set core-vents. If 
the cores are small in diameter, and long, — for instance, say 
2" diameter by 24" long, — it would then be best to take the 
vent up through the cope in concert with what would pass 
downwards. Very long, small-diameter cores cannot be too 
well connected with outlet vents, as the vents from such, espe- 
cially if quickly surrounded with metal, require to have a fast 
delivery. 

In the upper part of the cut are represented ideas that to 
some may be of value. It represents the finning or chamfer- 
ing of core-prints, in order to prevent the crushing of flanges, 
etc. At P and V there is not the chamfer which is seen at A 
and R. Many moulders seldom think of chamfering a print, 
and to the credit of such may be placed many bad castings. 
Chamfering core-prints should be performed upon the same 
principles as finning joints ; and whenever the print is short, or 
the core too heavy, there should be bearings to assist the 
prints, or chaplets, in holding the core, placed as represented 
at TT. 

The greatest cause of flange-crushiug is probably due to the 
irregularity and over-size of cores. Should any of my mould- 



178 SETTINfi AND fKNTIUNO rOIlKS. 

ers lose n casting throu^'h the altove cause, I should hold them 
rcsponsihle, allliDUj^h 1 lui.ulit reprimand the eort--inak»'r for 
making the core too lar<;ce. In our shop it is the custom for 
all pipes or moulds having flanges upon them to lie tried off 
ixnd on in concert with calii)ering the i)rint and core. This 
gives the moulder a chance to see if there is any liability of 
his mould or flanges being crushed ; and, if there is, he has 
time to tlien remedy any evils tliat might result in a l>ad cast- 
ing. The practice of thus trying off and on all such moulds 
has been the means of saving many a casting from going to 
the scrai»-pile. I think it is a safe assertion to make, that in 
not one of fifty shops is this the rule. 1 know that it takes 
more time ; but will say that in our shop I have yet to see a 
casting lost thiough having a crushed flange, — a thing that 
but few foundrymen can say. 

Having all castings good, far more than balances, in dollars 
and cents, the little extra time taken up in trying off and on 
all such copes. 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 179 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF 
CHAPLETS. 

It is not uncommon to see castings lost from improper 
setting or wedging of chaplcts. The work lost may be liglit or 
licav3% The little error that will cause the loss of a casting 
worth one dollar would cause the loss of one worth hundreds of 
dollars. In selecting this subject, there was no thought of pre- 
senting improved plans or ideas ; but, if possible, to show how 
castings may be and are lost through want of care or judgment, 
— not practice, for moulders that have worked a lifetime at the 
trade can be found who are no more expert in this respect 
than apprentices. 

The mould chosen to illustrate this subject is a large piston. 
The number of cores in it is eight ; for each core there are three 
cope chaplets required ; so that, altogether, we have twenty- 
fou- obaplets to be set and wedged ; and, should any one of 
thib number be wrong, the result would be a bad casting. 

.Often there are moulds where the vent of some core can only 
be taken off through the bottom of the mould ; and the core 
may be of such a form as to have only a small bearing on the 
sand and the rest on chaplets. This core may be the only one 
in a mould, to lose which would involve hundreds of dollars. 
When setting this core, the moulder is very careful that the 
vent portion has a solid air-tight joint ; for, if the liquid iron 
should find its way between the joint of the core and mould, all 
would be lost. After the core has been carefully set, the next 
important tiling to be done, to insure safety, is, after the cope 
is on, to wedge down the chaplets, so that the head of iron 



ISO I.Ml'KOI'KU SKTllNf; AM) \Vi;i)(;iNf; OV CIIAI'LHTS. 



oamiol r.'iisc up tlio ooio, and :illow tlio iiictnl to {X^'t into tlic 
voiil. Al i>, on the ligliL-liaiul hide; of tla- fill, is uu illuslra- 







tion of bow a great many cores arc dungeroubly \vcil;j;cd down. 
As this chaplct is shown, with its wedge and blocking, there 



IMPUOPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CIIAPLETS. ISl 

are three things that could liappcn which would allow the core 
to rise up so that the iron could get into a bottom vent, as 
shown at D. It may be well to remark here, that, whenever it 
is possible, vents in cores, similar to the one shown, should be 
arranged to be let off through the cope, as shown on the oppo- 
site side at H. There is always more or less danger in taking 
off the vent through the bottom. These remarks are intended 
more particularly for the draughtsman and pattern-maker, who 
should always reineml^cr that in moulding there is generally 
more or less risk, and that they can very often greatly lessen 
this risk by having a little thought for the moulder's interests, 
as well as for their own. 

Going back to the sul)ject : Suppose the mould shown is 
being poured ; the liquid metal is rushing through the runner 
or gate ^1, and the head soon becomes high enough to exert a 
pressure up and against the chaplets. Now look at chaplet B, 
and then at chaplet K. It will require but little observation to 
decide which one is liable to let the core rise sufficiently for the 
iron to run into the vent D. (The chaplet W, between B and 
/r, would not in actual practice be used. It is only shown 
there for the purpose of illustrating the ideas.) Now, the 
chaplet B is by no means an exaggerated illustration, but a true 
sketch, representing the wa}' a great many chai)lets are secured, 
sometimes on jobs upon which a great deal of money and labor 
have been expended. The lirst noticeable weak point is at 2. 
Here we have onl}- one point touching or resting on the core. 
This chaplet-hoad may be stiff enough to stand as it now is, 
but its chances are very slim indeed : if it does bend when the 
liquid iron makes it hot, up comes the core sufficiently to let the 
iron into the vent. Again, suppose the head will not bend : it 
is plain to see, that, in the way the wedge is placed in relation 
to the head which rests on the core, it would not require a 
very great strain to tii) up the rail, so as to liecome loose with 
the wedge 3, thereby letting the core rise up. There is still 



182 iMrrjirr.K sr/niNf; and wr.DniNr; or f'li.M'LKTS. 

aiiotluT |iossiliility of this t-oic rising np. We will suppose 
tiial lu-illuT of llic nitovr ri'siilts should occur, and tliiit the 
chaplct will stay ill the position shown. Over the top (jf this 
chaplet and wedi^e is a railroad-har. This bar is held dcnvn hy 
having a wedire, I, placed between it and the cast-iron beam X. 
Now, the way this chaplet is placed to the outer edge has been 
known to allow a rail, or similar bar, to partially roll over. 
Another feature frecpieiitly seen in wedging down the bars of a 
cope as well as chaplets is, that, instead of putting about an 
equal number of wedges on each side of a bar, they will all be 
placed on one side, and that most likely the weakest side, as 
at 4. 

At *S' and T may be seen some very fair illustrations of the 
wa}' many unaccountable bad results are accomi)lished. 

A chaplet wedged, as shown at S, will often cause bad 
results. When a heavy pressure comes uix)n a chaplet thus 
wedged with cast-iron wedges (which arc generally used), they 
will frequently lircak, on account of the two faces of the 
wedges not coming well together, as is shown, and thus allow 
the core to rise up and make the casting thinner than it should 
be, or allow the iron to run into bottom vents (should there be 
any), and cause a blow-up. 

The chaplet K is wedged in a way to be relied upon. After 
l)la(ing the wedges by hand, they need to be tightened. For 
this puri)()se a hammer should seldom be used. The hammer- 
ing to tighten them should be done by some lighter article than 
the common run of shop hammers. I once had some words 
with a moulder about losing a casting through bad clmpleting. 
lie was certain he had tightened his chaplets, and went so far 
as to call upon his helper to testify to his using his hammer. 
There is no (piestion but what he did tighten his chaplets, and 
the sketch of the hammer seen no doul)t shows how he used it. 

Some moulders will say the ''blocking " and chaplets cannot 
alwaj^s be arranged so as to use two wedges. It is admitted 



IMmOrEK SETTING AND "\^"RDGING OF CITAri>ETS. 183 

that there arc often such cases ; but, as a general thing, there 
is just about as much mechanical skill, or the lack of it, shown 
in placing the upper blocking, as there is in the general hand- 
ling of chaplets and wedges. Some moulders are just as liable 
to place blocking bars six inches above the chaplets as thej' are 
to have the bars clear only a quarter of an inch. The first 
blocks the}' can lay their hands on will be used to rest the bars 
on, instead of making a point to study the j^^'opei' relation for 
careful wedging. About the proper distance to allow for 
wedging space between bars and chaplets is ^". 

The less blocking and feioer pieces that are used between bars 
and zvedges, the better it is for the wedging and for the safety 
of a casting. At W is shown a chaplet wedged in a reliable 
manner where the use of blocks is required. 

Careless moulders often lose castings by the way in which 
they set bottom chaplets. R and M show wooden blocks, hav- 
ing sharp-pointed chaplets driven in them. The block li is apt 
to split, caused by using too loffg a chaplet. The block M 
shows the other extreme. Both of these blocks are liable to 
cause a bad casting through settling of the cores. Often, in 
setting a heav}- core upon such chaplets, the weight will force 
the sharp points deeper into the blocks, thereby causing the 
core to settle and make the casting too thin. Perhaps, if the 
core's own weight don't do it, the wedgiug-down of the chap- 
lets will. 

"When wooden blocks are used, they are better if made of 
hard wood sot with the* grain up ; and the moulder will have to 
use his judgment as regards the proper distance to drive in a 
point, as the size of the chaplet, the weight of core, and nature 
of the block must be considered. As a general rule, ^" is a 
good distance. 

The two inner bottom chaplets shown are placed in cast-iron 
stands. The chaplet on the right is reliably set. The one on 
the left illustrates why cores are sometimes broken, or the 
casting •■' comes thin," by not having a solid bearing. 



1S4 IMPUOrKU SKTTINf; AND WEDCiING OF (11 AI'LKTS. 

The wedges sliown, liaviiig (limeiiKions fjivcn, are of goo«l 
proporlioiis for cusl-iron wedges for geiieriil foumlry use. 
Many shops use wrought-iron wedges. Altogether, they are 
decidedly the best ; but, ou account of their cost, the cast-iron 
wedge is used in the majority of shops. It would be better to 
keei) a few wrought wedges, as there are often jobs where the 
cast wedges are not safe. 

More solid wedging can be done by (he size shown than l)y 
thicker ones. In wedging iron and iron, there is a tendency to 
slip ; and the more tapering the wedge is, the more liable it is 
to slip. When securing a cope, or a number of chaplets, with 
iron wedges, they should generally be gone over two or three 
times; the tightening of one wedge will often loosen others, 
making it necessary to go over them all once or twice after the 
first wedging, each time rapping lighter. 

The cat shown of a chai)let-stem represents one got up l»y an 
acquaintance, A. M. McGee, who is employed in a bolt-works, 
Cleveland, O. He has devised a machine for putting on the 
heads, and also claims originating the stem shown. Be that as 
it may, the plan is a good one. 

For slantnig cores, similar to those shown in the piston, 
chaplets with forged heads are not the best, on account of 
there being no chance for the head to adapt itself to the shape 
of the core. "With a stem having a shoulder and riveting-tip 
like the one shown, as large a plate head as desired can be 
readily riveted on in such a manner as to be loose or tight. 
Castings are often lost on account of chaplet stems not having 
sufficient shoulders on to hold down the riveted head wlien the 
pressure comes upon them. The advantage of having such a 
shoulder as shown is apparent. 

There are often cores used that require the chaplet heads to 
be bent, to correspond with their irregular surfaces or slanting 
faces. Such cores call for extra-careful work in placing and 
holding the chaplets. In some cases it is best, if condition 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGINO OF CIIAPLETS. 185 

will allow, to file away a portion of the core, so that straight- 
headed chaplets can be used, or when makuig the cores provide 
for this. In some foundries, round-column cores, etc., are 
often made flat where the chaplets are to rest, so as to allow 
the use of flat-headed chaplets, and give the chaplets a solid 
bearing. 

The triangle shown illustrates a plan that can often be 
adopted when a core has three chaplets in order to make the 
securing of chaplets more easy and reliable ; by the use of this, 
the chaplets are sure to have a good bearing, and also are not 
jarred by the use of wedges. To show the manner of thus 
securing a cope and its chaplets, suppose that we are going to 
get ready such a mould as shown. 

After all the cores are set, and clay balls placed where the 
chaplets are wanted, the cope is lowered down to receive the 
impression of the balls. The cope is now hoisted up, and 
the chaplet holes in the cope made ; being sure that the holes 
are all reamed out at the face of the mould, as shown at A". 
Castings are often lost through neglect of this. TFand B are 
illustrations of how such losses can occur. In W, the chaplet 
is all incased firmly in the sand. In B, the hole is ill-made 
at the stem-end of the chaplet ; and the one is nearly as 
dangerous as the other, as the chances are ten to one that 
the sand around the chaplets will be found dropped when the 
casting comes out. This may be caused either by having to 
push down the chaplet so as to rest on the core, or by the jarring 
of the chaplet when being wedged. When the chaplets are all 
placed in the cope as they should be, by having the hole " just 
easy" enough to permit the stem to work up and down in, 
and also made larger at the face of the mould, so that there 
can be no danger of breaking down the face, the cope is then 
ready to be closed. For uneven or slanting core surfaces, as 
here shown, it is a good plan to place a little flour on the cores 
where the chaplets are to come, which is known by the clay 



liS'i iMruorr.u skttinc; and wKixnNf; or fiiAi'LF.rs. 

niarlxs ; then when llu> coiic is lowered down, niul all of tlio 
eli:i[ikl.s rappL'd d(jwu soliil, the eopo is a;j;ain hoisted, when, 
by the impressions upon the flour, it can be known whether all 
of the ehaplets have a solid bearing. If all are now found to 
be right, the cope is lowered down to stay. 

In the piston mould shown, there are eight cores ; and to hold 
down each core, there arc three ehaplets used. The toj) ones 
arc made of ^" iron, and the bottom ones of f" iion. The 
heads on all the ehaplets are 2" square. The thickness of the 
metal in the casting is aI)out one inch. There being eight 
cores, tlieie are also eight triangle plates. These plates are 
now set, one u\)on every three chai)lets. The round dots rep- 
resent where they rest upon the ehaplets. 

After these triangles are all placed, there are then two plate 
rings placed over them, as seen at 1' and F ; these rings 
being kept up high enough to admit of a wedge being placed 
between tliem and the triangle plates. Over the top of these 
two rings are now placed four railroad-bars, they also being 
kept high enough to admit of wedging. Set at right angles to 
and on top of these four bars are placed two heavy cast-iron 
beams, as shown at X. The rings, rail bars, and cast beams 
are all held up by blocking on the outer edges of the cope, 
similar to that as shown at U. The inner and outer rings Y 
and F are connected by three arms, which also extend from 
the outer ring to reach the outside of the cope. These rings, 
licing made purposely for this job, were made in one casting. 
On top of the beams are placed all the weights needed to hold 
down the coi)e, if there is no chance to bolt it down. After 
tlie weights are all on, then carefully wedge the rails, rings, 
and triangle plates. It is not intended that this article should 
cover all the ways that castings may be lost through improper 
wedging or setting of ehaplets. The field for blunders in this 
line is too broad to attempt any such ta^k. 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 187 



MOMENTUM AND RULES FOR WEIGHTING 
COPES AND CORES. 

In the article on weighting down copes (vol. i. p. 113), I 
wrote that it was absurd, to my view, for one to say he can 
figure the exact weight required to liold down a cope. I think 
the following examples will fully prove that there is a momen- 
tum, and that it is absurd for one to say he can figure the exact 
weight that is just sufficient to hold down all copes. To say 
the " statical- head " is all the pressure copes are subjected to, 
is to maintain that there is no momentum, and no difference 
in moulds or forms of gates in producing a pressure. 

Some argue that there are no conditions to be considered in 
the weighting-down of copes ; that it is simply a question of 
hydrostatics. To prove that there arc other conditions to be 
considered, and also that the momentum of the iron at the 
moment many moulds become full has an influence, I would 
simi)ly ask any one to take a pattern l^gV' square b}' about 1^" 
thick, common rule measurement, and make four moulds, two 
of them to be poured as shown at K, and two as shown at //, 
Fig. 65. Any one will admit that these modes of pouring 
cover the common manner of making pouring-runners, as first 
receivers of the iron, as it is poured out of the ladle. 

The mould K, if brought up quickly, would require more 
weight to hold it down than it would were it brought up quickly 
and poured as shown at //. Either one of them, if brought up 
easily, can be held down by having the cope and the weights 
weigh two hundred and thirty [)Ounds ; but they cannot be 
brought up as fast as possible, and be held down by that 



1R8 



iM'i.i'.s von \vi;u;irnNfi coi'Ks and cduks. 



>v('i<2[lit. Fuitlicr, I will iillow llic iiso of Uiiily-fivc pounds 
liKJif weiglil on K lli:iii llit' licrid c-:ills for; and (^\i:u tlieu the 




t^ pi? 







■< '.!, 



copo will lift if the mi'lnl is liroiiulit up fnst. Both of these 
moulds huvf tiie full bcnclit of a v'lscv. Should cac-h bo poured 




Fig. 70. 



Fig. 71. '■i^ 



liifjircnt Styles of Gatiny Moulds. 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 189 

fast without a riser, there will be an iucroasccl momentum, and 
more weight will be required to hold them down. Fifty pounds 
extra, added to the weight the statical head calls for, would 
not hold down K if brought up fast. These moulds, compara- 
tively, present but a very small lifting area to that which some 
others do. Therefore, if such small lifting areas will give the 
momentum shown, w^hat must w^e not expect in large lifting 
areas ? 

As supplementary to the two above examples, the engrav- 
ings. Figs. GG-71, are given opposite, in which is further 
illustrated how figuring for cope weights is but an approxima- 
tion, and that for practical safe working one cannot figure the 
exact weight required. 

The forms of gates here shown are those also commonly 
used. In Fig. 67 we have the pouring-gate higher than the 
riser. The result is, that neither the height of the pouring-basin 
nor the riser can be figured from to obtain a weight which 
would be the nearest to the cope's lifting capacity. The mould 
in Fig. G7 is supposed to have 144 square inches of lifting-sur- 
face, and, as shown, has a basin or pouring-head 12" above the 
lifting or cope's surface. This mould, were the cope's lifting 
pressure theoretically figured for the 12" head, would require a 
weight, including cope, of 450 pounds. With the style of 
pouring-basin and gate shown, and having a riser 6" lower 
than the pouring-basin, however quickly, at the last, the gates 
or heads were "brought up," the 450 pounds could not be 
raised. On the other hand, were one to figure for the weight, 
taking the height of the riser for the lifting or statical head, 
he would require half of 450 pounds, as the riser's height is G", 
or half of 12" ; therefore, to weight for a 6" head, we should, 
theoretically figured, require a weight, including cope, of 225 
pounds. With such a weight, even being " brought up slow," 
the cope would lift. The mean of these two weights — 337|^ 
pounds — is about as near as one could theoretically figure for 



I'M) KULKS FOR WKKJIITING COl'IvS AND COKES. 

a safe wcijrht. By pouring so as to l»ring up llie pressure 
slowly, :i wt'i;j;ht of 2.J0 pounds would iiold the lifl of the (J" 
lifiid. In all those experiments, after the ha.sins and riser were 
furini'd, the copes were weighed, and weights added until the 
copes and all weighed as per ligures giveu. "NVhen one has a 
jilain surface, it is simple enough to figure the head pressure; 
but, when one comes to apply hydrostatics to every thing that 
comes along, it is different. It may, in some jobs, be safe 
I'MOugh to take the mean of riser and pouiing-biusin as the 
lifliug-head, or height to figure from. But, unless there is over 
six inches difference between the height of riser and pouring- 
heads, I would not advise, in any of the styles of gates shown, 
to ligure tlie pressure from the mean of the head's heights. 
He that will make it a practice to figure from the highest point 
of the pouring-l)asin as the lifting-head, and then allow extra 
weight in proportion as the style of mould and gates are pro- 
ductive of momentum, will work the most securely. If it 
were always practicable to pour with very hot iron, and have 
enough area of riser to carry off the metal as fast as it could be 
poured into the mould, and also were one always sure of having 
as hot iron as he made calculations for, the height of risers or 
flow-off gates would then, as a general thing, uot allow any 
head pressure much higher than its own to exist. 

The duller the iron is, the more apt, in moulds having risers, 
is the statical pressure to approach that of the pouring-basin's 
height. Often the metal will freeze at the risei-s' entrance, and 
then, again, it will come up the risers so sluggishly as to retard 
the flow. While the statical head's pressure may be that of 
the basin's height, it does not always follow that the mould is 
being strained the full height of the pouring-head ; for in some 
cases, if the metal is dull enough to freeze in tlie risers, its 
dulness is very a[)t to exert less lifting inessure ui)<)n the lift- 
ing surfaces of the mould. The thinner the metal in lifting 
portions, the less lift is dull iron liable to exert. Where pro- 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 191 

portions are thick, then should the risers, through anj' cause, 
"flow sluggish," or "freeze up," we are more sure a lifting 
pressure, the full height of the pouring-basin's head, is being 
exerted. 

There are many moulds, that, were they poured direct, similar 
to that shown at A" and in Fig. GG, even were the risers lower 
than the pouring-gate, would not have their copes held down 
by the weight obtained from the pouring-gate's height of head. 
Such styles of direct-poured moulds are productive of more 
momentum than any style of gated moulds generally made. 
The amount of weight required over and above what the pour- 
ing-head calls for, to hold down the momentum force, depends 
upon how many ladles are used, how fast the mould is poured, 
the square inches of area that the metal will suddenly rise up 
against, and the distance of risers below pouring-basins. It 
might also be added, that these three momentum factors, to an 
extent, enlarge in ratio as the height of head increases above 
the lifting surface. 

A class of moulds that generally will admit of the closest 
figuring, or that have the least momentum lifting prcbsure upon 
them, are those similar to the one shown in Fig. GS. Here we 
have the metal entering the mould, as represented by the arrow 
at N. Moulds thus poured or run from the bottom take the 
metal the fastest upon the start, and the rapidity of filling 
graduaUy diminishes till the end, thereby greatly lessening the 
force of momentum or strain upon the mould. 

If it were practicable to pour liJce moulds, having the same 
sectional area of gates and heads of like height, some to be run 
underneath, similar to Fig. 68 ; the others to have joint gates, 
as at Fig. G9 ; the pouring-basins to be large enough in both 
cases to admit of keeping them and the gates full, — the joint 
gated moulds could be filled up the fostest, and would require 
the most weight to hold the copes. The reason I would assign 
for this is that the joint gates admit of the greatest velocity in 
flow. 



102 



IIULES roil WKKJHTINC rol'KS AND CORES. 



Mct.ll will more roadil}' flow into air-space than into a body 
of metal. The hii^'her the heads, and the nearer a level the 
metal in hasin and mould approach each other, the more ap- 
parent this becomes. In pouring higli, vertically cast moulils 
entirely from the bottom, we can often see the top portion till 
up so slowly as to cause fears of its not running. Some might 
here say, the reason for the mould's filling so much slower at 
the last w^as simply caused by there being less bead pressure at 
the cud than at the beginning. "While this, of coui'se, is cur- 




Illwytiutionof Iltad Weight 

iiL Jit 'tt t It 1 1 114/ a 1 low 

Fig. 72. 

rcct, there are two other factors which help to retard the flow. 
One is the decreased fluidity of the metal, the other its weight. 
As an example to illustrate how the metal's weight will retard 
its flowing, the annexed cut is given. The example is simple, 
and the experiment readily tried. As seen, the metal's highest 
head is at F, and it escapes through the outlet W. By i)0ur- 
iug a steady stream into the basin (which, by the way, is far 
enough from the upright Fto prevent any effect such as direct 
pouring into would cause in adding to head force) , and keeping 
it full, we will, with a head of 12", as seen, throw up a stream 
about 8" high. Now, were it not for the resistance of the air, 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 193 

friction of flow through the gate, and the weight of metal en- 
deavoring to descend, the head F would throw the stream as 
high as itself. 

In about the same ratio as here seen, docs this element retard 
the head's influence in rapidly filling bottom-poured moulds. 
After the metal has risen to that height in a mould to which 
the mould's gate or runner head could throw a stream into 
air-space when first started, then the further filling-up of the 
mould is more due to that non-momentum element in equilib- 
rium of liquids that is exercised in low heads settling to a dead 
level. The decreased fluidity of metal mentioned has also 
much to do in preventing heads suddenly finding their level, 
and causing momentum. The duller iron is, the more cohesive 
it is. It can become so cohesive in a mould, while being poured, 
as to entirely stop the flow before the mould is filled. 

As it is true these elements in a greater or lesser degree 
decrease momentum, it cannot but be seen, that with pouring- 
basins, and underneath gates similar to that seen attached to 
Fig. GS, the force of momentum would be greatly decreased. 
In fact, when it is practicable to use such underneath gates 
combined with pouring-basins, copes will, as a general thing, 
have but little momentum force exerted upward against them ; 
and if the weight obtained from figuring the gate's statical head 
and mould's lifting area (allowing a cubic inch of iron to weigh 
.26 of a pound) be placed upon an}' ordinary weight of cope, 
there will be no danger of its lifting, even were there no risers 
to indicate when the mould was full. 

A point which it may be well to draw further attention to 
here is the effect of directly pouring into runners, instead of 
first having the metal enter a basin from which it then flows to 
the runner, as seen at //, Fig. 65, also Figs. 68 and 69. The 
only difference between these pourers and those of lu Fig. 65, 
also Figs. 66 and 70, is, one has basins, and the other has none 
except the end of the runner, as at li, is enlarged. Pouring 



V.il Kri,r.s yon wi;u;htin(; cori-s and couks. 

diroot into ninnor-ijMtcs. to :in extent, often ^ivos the momen- 
tUMi lu;el-i>ivs.sure e(iiuil tu :i1mh).sI wluit it w<jul(l li;^uie tukinj^ 
S, Fig. 70, tlie lip of the hulle, for tlie height of the head. The 
monientuin that such pouring ciiuses on forced fast-poured 
moulds, such as flat plates, etc., where the metal suddenly tills 
up to a large lifting surface or area, may be such as to call for 
over one-half the weiglit more than tiic height of tiie statical 
head would figure, in order to overcome tiii^nomentum, and 
safel}' hold down the cope. 

Gates of the stjdc shown at Figs. 09 and 71 are generally 
termed "• joint gates." Moulds poured with such gates are 
generally sulijected to much momentum ; and whether their 
basins are such as in Fig. 68, or in Fig. 70, to a ver}- large de- 
gree determines their momentum lifting force. Spray-gates, as 
seen in plan Fig. 71 , it must l)e remembered, have a lifting force 
the same as though the}' formed a part of tlie lifting area of 
the nn)uld ; aud, when figuring such a nn^uld's lifting area, 
that of the spray-gates should l)e added to it. 

The term momentum here used, the reader is to understand, 
I apply to any pressure over or above the mould's final statical 
pressure, which may be created during the second of time that 
any head over or above the cope's lifting surface is being filled ; 
also, the height of pouring-basins above any flow-ofif risers or 
gates, I consider as factors of momentum. For in strictly 
practical working, a second or so after the pouring ceases, the 
height of the lowest flow-off riser is that which should become 
the statical head, as long as the metal in the mould remains in 
a fluid state. 

Before closing the momentum question, there is another point 
which it might be well to call up, which is this : We must re- 
member, that, in a degree, whatevei** pressure we subject the 
cope's surface to, the same is transmitted to all parts of the 
mcHild. Of course, by this it is not meant that the sides aud 
bottom of the mould receive no more pressure than the cope's 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 105 

surface does. In addition to the cope's surface pressure, the 
bottom and sides of the mould have to support tlie dead weight 
of metal in the mould. To find the pressure upon the side or 
bottom of a mould : For the bottom, multiply the area covered., 
by the vertical height to the top of pouring gates or basin; for 
side pressure, multiply the height of the sides measured from the 
top of the gates to the centre of gravity of the casting : either 
when found, and multiplied by .26 (the weight of a cubic inch 
of iron), will give the pressure in pounds. Taking the momen- 
tum head pressure in concert with the metal's weight in the 
mould, it is wonderful, the amount of pressure the bottom of 
some moulds have to support. 

As I think I have proved that momentum enters into the 
question of pouring moulds, I am now ready to present rules 
which will, in connection with the above, no doubt, provicle a 
simple and intelligent solution of weighting copes by mathe- 
matical calculation. "Were there no conditions to be considered, 
and were all moulds filled without any sudden pressure upon 
the copes, then it might be true, as one of my critics said 
("American Machinist," Aug. 19, 1882): "The science of 
hydraulics, demonstrated by experience, proves that, given 
height and surface, and application of multiplication, the result 
will be, not an approximation, but certainty itself." 

In figuring the head pressure for water, etc., experience has 
no doubt demonstrated there is a certainty or exactness to be 
obtained by mathematical calculations. When one comes to 
apply the science of hydraulics, or properly hydrostatics, to 
foundry practice, my experience would make it read, not a 
certaintj^ but an approximation. While the following rules are 
given for figuring up the pressures upon copes, they can at 
their best, when practically applied, be but an approximation ; 
and in many cases much more weight than the actual statical 
head figures up will be required. The momentary pressure 
almost all copes receive is caused by the sudden attaining of a 



10(1 uuLKs I'ou \vi;i(;iiTiNf; coi'ks and couks. 

head, or, coiiiinonly spcakinjr, llic (iH'm^-up of Hit? ^mIcs when 
the inoiilil is full. Did tin- iihIcs or risers (whni :i mould was 
full) lill ii|( as graihially as tlie Jiiould, then there wouUl he no 
nioiiKiituin. As a general thing, il takes from live up to over 
one hundred seeonds to lill the conunon run of moulds with 
metal, whereas the gates through which they are poured will 
generally (ill up in about one second, thereby obtaining a hend- 
preasnre in one moment tvhich it often takes the mould in filling 
over one hxmdred seconds to create. The higher the top of 
pouring-gates above the mould's lifting surface, the greater 
the increased lifting force of momentum ; and as has l)een fully 
shown, the various forms of pouring-gates wdl retjuire difTerent 
amounts of weight in pouring moulds having exactly the same 
lifting area, and same height of heads or gates. 

There are various formulas for mathematically calculating 
the theoretical weight required to hold down copes. Mr. Tullis, 
in ''The American Machinist" of Aug. 19, 1882, gave the 
following concise rule: "Specific gravity of water, 1,000; 
specific gravity of iron, 7,202. Weight your cope ; measure 
surface and heiglit in feet; multiply by 7,202. The answer 
will be in ounces." 

Mr. Jewett, in "The American Machinist" of Sept. 9, 1882, 
gives a rule in a manner that should be very explicit to those 
who arc ignorant of the subject, of whom, I am sorry to say, 
there are thousands among moulders. lie explains his rule as 
follows: "I assume a column of water 32 feet in height to 
equal IG pounds water-pressure : then IG feet equals 8 pounds, 
and 8 feet equals 4 pounds. Iron is 7^*'jj times heavier than 
water : so, for 8 feet high, or 4 pounds of water, the correspond- 
ing pressure of iron would be 4 pounds, which multiplied by 
''A equals 31^% pounds. Four feet head would be one-half as 
much, or 15 j^j pounds. Two feet would be one-half this latter 
quantity, or 7 -^ly pounds. One foot wt)uld be one-half this, or 
3^ pounds; and six inches head would equid 1^'',^ or say 2 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 197 

pounds. All displacement of cores must be computed accord- 
ing to doptli, etc." 

This rule of Mr. Jewett's, assuming, as it does, that iron is 
7y\ heavier than water, leaves a margin upon the side of safety. 
According to this, a cubic foot of cast-iron would weigh 487^ 
pounds, while the actual weight of the common run of gray 
cast-iron is about 450 pounds per cubic foot. However, f!ie 
extra 37|- pounds in every cubic foot when used for flask 
weights will only aid in making copes more secure. The out- 
come of his figures is, that to weight a cope there is 5^ ounces 
of weight required for every mch in height of head and square 
inch of lifting surface. To show the practical application of 
the rule, the following example is given : The section of mould, 
as seen at Fig. 67, is representative of a plate 12^5^' x I23V, 
with area of pouring-gate and riser out ; this would give us a 
lifting area of 144". Now, were we going to pour this with 
a head that would be G" from the joint up to the top of gate, 
we must multiply the 5^ ounces six times, then with the prod- 
uct, which is 32 ounces, multiply the area of the cope's lifting- 
surface, which is 144"; the product of this is 4,G08 ounces = 
288 pounds. Now, did we desire to pour such a mould with 
a head 12 inches high, we should simply have to double the 
weight of 288 pounds, making it 576 pounds. Were a plate 
12" X 12", having a head of 12", poured slowly at the last so 
as to bring the head up very easily, a weight of 460 pouuds, 
including the cope, would be just sufficient to hold it down. 
To do this, the gate and riser (the riser to be as large or 
larger in diameter than pouring-gate) must be placed on the 
pattern ; for were they to be placed upon the joint, and from 
them to the mould branch gates be cut, then there would be 
more than 144" of lifting surface. Four hundred and fifty 
pounds being the weight of a cubic foot of cast-iron, it is too 
near equilibrium to risk the 10 pounds added to the 450 holding 
down more area than the 144". "When the 460 pounds will 



198 KL'LKs ron wKinirriNfi rorr.s and fours. 

hold down tho Ml" lifliiii: suifiico, it is vnsy to see that the '*7G 
pounds, (^lit:iii)cd for same purpose l»y Mr. Jewell's rule, will 
give (piite a nKirjjjin for safety. \\\\\i the cope's weijiht added 
to such a niariiin, we have sudieienl weij^ht, as prove<l hy llic 
experiments, to safely hold down tlu; jzent-ral run of eopes. 
In nioulds llial will create extra momentum, it mii^ht, in some 
cui^'S wiiere the eojK'S are light, be best to add mi^e weight 
than the rule and weight of cope gives. 

A rule tlie autiior uses for flask weights is as folh^ws : Midtiphj 
the lifting area by the height of head, the lyroOiu-t b>/ the ireiyht 
of a cubic inch of iron. To obtain the statical pressure, for 
instance to the cope of the plate mould, 12" x 12" referred 
to above, the following example is for a twulve-inch head : 

Length of lifting surface I'J" 

Width of lifting surface 12" 

Lifting area 144" 

Ileiglit of gate 12" 

Cubic contents 1728" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Statical pressure 449.28 lbs. 

In figuring up the pressure necessary to resist in holding 
clown copes, there arc often certain cores which have to 1)8 
taken into account. The amount of pressure partly immerged 
cores will exert upwards dei)ends upon their de2)th of lifling area 
in the lirpiid iron beloio the toj) of pouring-gate or head; and 
after a core becomes wholly submerged, its lifting force cannot 
be increased. The difference in weight it would require to hold 
down a core two feet below tlie surface of a body of metal, and 
that required to hold it down if just \" or so below the surface, 
is practically nothing. Any rise of pressure is only attainable 
while the core remains parti}' immerged. To illustrate these 
points, there is shown a submerged core, as seen in Fig. 73 ; 
also a core uot submerged, as seen in Fig. 74. Supposing the 



RULES FOR AVEIGIITING COPES AND CORES. 



199 



section (Fig. 74) to be eight feet long, it would require 6289^%^ 
pounds weight to hold down its statical head-pressure. Adding 




t 




t 






: 13 


1 


5_ 
l' 


2> 


6:. 


f~ 


1 


r 


%' 




^v' 




N 


• 



Actxtal Section of Average Section of 
Head Pressxcrc. Head Pressure. 

Fig. 73. 



the cope's and core's weight to the 6289y%2_ pounds, would 
allow such a poured mould plent}' of margin to overcome any 




Fig. 74. 

momentum of the lifting force. The following two examples 
show how the 6289^^0 pounds was obtained : — 



Length of lifting surface 

"Width of lifting surface 

Area of lifting surface 

Height from bottom of core to top of basin . 

Cubic contents 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron 

Statical pressure 



96" 
12" 



1152" 

18" 

20736" 
.26 



5391.36 lbs. 



2<>(l KULKS l-Olt WKICllTING COI'KS AM) CORKS. 

As this only ^ivcs tlu; core's liftiiij; force, the copes must }»e 
added to olit.iiii the total liftiiii: power. The metal has a lift- 
Wi'j, surface of ,'{" upon t-aeli side of tln' coie ; and tlie deplli of 
tlie cope heing G", we havi', therefore, the folhnviu;^ for the 
total lifting force of the cope : — 

Lengtli of lifting surface 00" 

Width of lifting surface 0" 

Area of lifting surface 570" 

Height from bottom of cope to top of liasiu . . 0" 

Cubic contents 3450" 

"Weight of a cubic inch of iron .20 

Statical pressure of cope 898 56 lbs. 

Statical pressm-e of core 5391.30 " 

Total statical pressure ' . . C2.'S9.92 " 

The above being illustrative of a core not submerged, \\c will 
next notice the conditions of a submerged core, illustrated by 
Fig. 73, which is a section of a pipe or column which we will 
suppose to be 12" outside diameter, the thickness of metal 1", 
length of casting 8 feet. In such a mould, it may in a sense 
be said, that there are two heads to exert a lifting pressure, 
one being that of the cope, and the other that of the core. 
From the joint up to the top of the gate, is the lifting pressure 
of cope. The lifting pressure of the core, as it is submerged, 
is the number of pounds of metal its body di><places, minus the 
iceiijht of the core. 

To make this more clear, suppose we have a pail full of 
water, into which is pressed a bottle corked air-tight. Now, 
before this can be pressed down below the water's surface, we 
will have to displace or allow the water to flow over the pail's 
edge. The weight of water displaced, less the weight of the 
liottle, is the pressure recpiired to hold the bottle under the 
water's surface. Now, this bottle could be immersed as deep 
as the pail would permit, re(]uiriug practically no more press- 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 201 

ure than it would take to hold it ^" below the surface of the 
water. Returning to the pipe-mould example, the rule for 
finding its statical pressure will be as follows : — 

PRESSURE OF THE COPE. 

Length of lifting surface of cope 96" 

Width of lifting surface of cope 12" 

Area of lifting surface of cope 1152" 

Height from the joint up to the top of the gate . 10" 

Cubic contents 11520" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Weight of statical pressure 2995.20 lbs. 

PRESSURE OF THE CORE. 

Length of submerged core 96" 

Area of cross section 78^" 

Cubic contents 7536" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Weight of statical pressure 1959.36 lbs. 

Allowing the core to weigh 100 pounds per cubic foot, and 
having a G" print on each end, its weight would be about 520 
pounds : this deducted from the statical pressure will leave the 
buoyancy, or weight required to hold the core down, but 
l,439j%% pounds; which, added to the pressure of the cope, 
gives us the actual statical pressure such a mould would re- 
ceive when poured, 4,434^%^^ pounds. 

A point to be remembered is, that partly immerged cores, 
similar to that seen in Fig. 74, take their pressure from the 
pouring-gate or basin height, while with totally submerged 
cores, as per Fig. 73, the height of a pouring-gate or basin 
has no effect upon them ; for, as above stated, after a core 
once becomes wholly submerged, its lifting pressure will not 
practically increase, however high the head or the gate may be 
carried above it. 



2')'2 Kl'I.KS FOR WHKJUTINf; COl'KS AND COKKS. 

^\'itl^ ii-ffiCMcc to the wcif^ht rcfjuircd to hold down cores 
that stand viitically, simihir to thi- (•(•litre core of cyliiidci-s, 
(•tc, tliat arc cast iipon tlicii' ends, there Ls thcoreticallv no 
lift on a svuMjlh, true, vertical-stunding core. The reason that 
ill practice vertical cores require to he weighted down is sim- 
jiiy because there is more or less danger of iron getting under 
them from various causes; or, if the surface of the cores 
.swells, or is rough, the iron ma}' raise it ; and, again, cores 
rarely stand exactly [iliunl). The lifting-pressure upon veili- 
cal-standing, straight cores is one that would not admit of a 
rule being practically applied, from the fact that the lifting 
force may, from an}' of the above causes, be made to vary 
from practically nothing up to what it would take to hold down 
the core were its under-surface all immersed in fluid iron. In 
weighting down vertical cores, one must use judgment as to the 
chauccs involved, and weight them accordingly. 

A simple plan which could be often used to obtain the lift- 
ing-pressure of pipe, etc., cast horizontal, is illustrated by the 
small cuts A and D seen at right of Fig. 73. By this plan, 
lighter pressures are obtained than by the principles set forth 
in exain[)les on p. 20 ; and in cases of larger cores than the 
size shown, it might often be well to add about ten per cent 
more weight than that calculated by the foregoing for the 
statical head. It must be understood that the weight obtained 
by cither of these rules is intended to simply give the statical 
head pressure. To safely hold down the flasks, the weight of 
the cope is added ; and, should the style of pouring adopted be 
productive of extra pressure, then weight should be added in 
l)r()portion to the lifting-force thus created. To figure the 
[)ressure by this latter plan, as at A, we first obtain the sec- 
tional area of the half-circle of the core B, which is 39-]" ; then 
the sectional area of the width of the mould from the joint to 
the top of the pouring-gate, which is 12U"; the two combined 
giving a sectional area of lo'J^", as at ^1 upon the right of 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 203 

Fig. 73. This, multiplied by the length, 96", gives us 15,288" ; 
which, multiplied by the weight of a cubic inch of iron, gives 
us SiOT-ly'ify^ pounds, the weight to be placed upon the cope. 
In practice, to figure the pressure by this plan upon such a 
cope, 1 would not take the trouble to find the sectional area of 
the lifting-heads, but would simply average the half-circle by 
taking in even numbei's fully two-thirds its vertical height, and 
add it to the vertical height of head above the joint. This 
would throw the sectional half-circle area into a plain horizontal 
measurement, thereby giving a horizontal surface to be multi- 
plied by the average inches added to the gate's height, as 
shown at D. The curved dotted lines seen show where the 
horizontal plane was drawn in averaging the half-circle. To 
figure the pressure in this way, the example would be as fol- 
lows : — 

Length of lifting surface 90" 

Width of lifting surface 12'' 

Area of lifting surface 1152" 

Height of head pressure 14" 

Cubic contents 16128" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Statical pressure 4193.28 lbs. 

Figuring the pressure according to the exact size of the 
lifting area, as seen above, we obtain 3974j^(f^ pounds as 
the statical pressure. In guessing at the average, as in the 
last example, the statical pressure obtained, as seen, is AWo^^^ 
pounds. This gives a weight of 218^% pounds more than the 
exact area calls for. 

The rule I have here given is one that can, to an extent, 
be worked mentally, and therefore will be of much assistance 
in aiding to determine (where time will not admit of figuring) 
the weight necessary to hold down a cope. To find the weight 



204 lUI.KS von AVKirJllTlNf; C'Ol'KS AND COKES. 

mentally : Form in the miiid, b;/ inrutal cah-iddtiun, a tccii/ht 
efjiial to the size of the horizontal lifliiuj surface up to the tojj of 
the ijiite. 

While this >vill no (l<)iil)t appear very crude, it will, with 
inactiee, enable one to hecoine very proficient in tiie art <jf 
guessing, especially if lie will occasionally figure U) learn how 
near he guessed. Of course, in guessing there should he a 
large niaigin upon the side of safety, as it is not possible that 
all can guess as closely as it can be figured. The term statical 
here used means acting by mere weight, and is applied to the 
pressure on copes after the momentum impulse has ceased. 
To overcome the momentum, (lood judfjment must be exercised 
in determining its lifting force, and in adding weight sufficient 
to overcome it. If the mode of gating and pouring does not 
create much momentum, then the statical weight, combined 
with the copes' weight, will generally be sullicieut to hold the 
copes down. 

The decimal .26, here used as the weight of a cubic inch of 
cast-iron, is not as near as we could figure ; but as its use 
involves the least figures, and it is not far from the most exact 
weight of a ciiliic inch of cast-iron, it is adopted. 

While ui)Oii this subject of '' head pressure," it seems a fitting 
place to present a few notes upon bolting down binders. As 
will be seen, working plans are shown of top binders. The two 
sizes shown, I sketched from those in actual use in " our 
foundry." The design is one which I think is ver}' handy for 
practical use. Wishing to know how much the bars would 
spring with a given weight, I had them supported at the ends 
and loaded in the middle, as shown in the engravings. The 
end view at Fig. 77 shows the plan adopted in order to load with 
the shop's weights. Two bindei-s were rested upon solid end 
bcaiings, the distance between the binders being 1-s". As seen 
in side view, two flat bars were set 12" apart, after which the 
weights, which weighed upon the scales 12,840 pounds, were 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 



205 



hoisted ou. After being loaded, a template was fitted between 
the bottoms of binders and iron block T, as seen at X. The 







n 



^_L- 







V-TT— ? 



'l^ 



! 

I 

ft 

! 
J 



weights were now hoisted off. With the top weights of 9,720 
pounds off, the binders (Fig. 76) rose up ^%". When the total 
weight of 12,8-10 pounds was off, the space between the tern- 



2<)<l un. Ks Foil wKuaniNr; roi-Ks ani> foiiKS. 

plate Jiiid hinders s1iow<m1 that this weij^ht li.-ul deflected them 
g'o". The laii;e l)iiiders (Fii;. 7.0) weie next tested, the same 
weights heing used. With tlie 9,720 pounds off, thej' if)se up 
^"■.i "; with the total 12,H40 pounds off, the space showed, the 
two hinders had deflected ^". These cxi)erinients are interest- 
ing, as it may hy them be seen that it is wrong to siii)pose that 
a cope cannot rise because it is boltetl down. AVhen well bolted 
down. I am luUy aware, it will not rise so as to allow iron to run 
out, but tiiis is not the rise I refer to. The rise that is likely to 
occur is where, for instance, tliere is a heavy lift at about the 
middle of the binders, such as would be caused by the binders 
holding down deep cores. It is, as a general thing, when cores 
have their vents taken off through the l)ottom of the mould, 
tliat we are likely to have trouble through lial)ility of the 
binders to spring when the head pressure comes upon them. 
This springing of binders has also often caused castings to be 
ttiicker through their centre than the pattern called for, aud ha.s 
been the cause of getting iron into the joint vents. 

Taking core vents off through the bottom of mould, is in 
some cases very risky ; for, should they rise ^V', it is sufficient 
to let the metal strahi itself into the vents, and therebj' send 
the casting to the "scrap-heap." jVIany moulders, to their 
sorrow, know this to be a fact. All binders will spring more 
or less. "When there is danger of iron getting into under- 
vents, we should weight down the centre portion of the bindei^s 
to the best of our judgment, so as to resist the tendenc}' of 
any spring. "While the design of binders here shown is very 
good, I think were a bottom flange cast on tlicm. as seen in 
Fig. 7H, the stiffness, by the addition of a few p(junds of iron, 
would be greatly increased. 

As nearly all copes at the present day are weighted b}' guess- 
work, and some by no thought whatever, the rules and funda- 
mental i)rinciple herein set forth may l)e of use. While the 
rules will be ol value in aiding to determine co[)e weights, it 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 207 

must bo remembered that there are a hundred and one tilings 
that no rule can cover, which lias been practically stated in 
article on " Weighting Down Copes," vol. i. Good judgment^ 
backed by experience^ must be our guide in successfully pro- 
viding for copes standing that often-dreaded test, — " head 
pressure." 



MISCELLANEOUS CTIAPTERS. 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTUIli: OF FOUNDRY 
FACINGS. 

ForNDHY l)laoking.s have always Itcon moro or less a l»onc of 
contention between the nser iukI niaiuifaetnrer ; the former 
complaining of inferior goods, and the latter of ignorance in 
their use. There is no question hut hoth are often right. 
lUacking can he of an inferior (luality, and can also be igno- 
rantly used. There are two things that stand in the way of 
investigating the qualities of blacking said to be poor. The 
first is, not knowing of what material it is made ; the second, 
the moulder's readiness to find any excuse for rough-skinned 
or scabbed castings. 

The manufacturer of blacking is very frequently censured 
for that used on heavy work. One reason for this is in the 
high qualit}- required for such work, and the fact that the 
moulder is called upon to make mixtures or washes of blackings 
Itefore he can apply it to the mould. In this class of work, 
more than in any other, the inaiuifacturer receives much unjust 
censure. In vol. i. p. "208, it is fully shown wherein much lies 
with the moulder in properly mixing blacking, and in putting 
it on his mould, in order to produce smooth-skinned castings. 

Blackings are often condemned that in reality are too good. 
Aln)Ost any blacking will cause trouble if not understandingly 
used. One complaint, often heard with light work, is that of 
blacking sticking when being printed or sleeked. Another is 
that of its washing or rolling up when pouring the mould. 
This last complaint is in reality a serious one, and one which 
the moulder is justilied in making. A blacking which will wash 
208 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 209 

lacks cohesion, caused either by too coarse grinding or the 
want of a bond. The materials chiefly used for binding, or pre- 
venting blackings from washing, are leads and other minerals, 
and clays. Our heavy blackings are principally composed of 
carbon, coke, and anthracite, with the above-named bonds. 
The finer ground blackings are, the more cohesion and body 
they will possess, which makes them a better wash and dust 
for moulds. For a dust, fine-ground blackings are generally 
more or less sticky. In fact, it is generally an evidence of 
good quality and mixture, to have blacking sticky. A blacking 
that will stick while being sleeked or printed can generally be 
rehed upon to " peel " well. I know moulders dislike to work 
with sticky blackings, and condemn them. Of course, what 
we moulders want is a blacking that will "peel" well, and 
that will not stick. To thoroughly combine these two qualities 
in rich or heavy blackings, is one of the things facing-makers 
seldom accomplish. To assist the sleeking and printing of 
sticky blackings, charcoal is extensively used. In stove- 
foundries the moulders generally have two bags ; one contain- 
ing the peeling or heavy blacking, the other the charcoal. The 
heavy is first shaken on, then the charcoal. To make a nice 
" print," the pattern should be well brushed and dry ; and in 
shaking on the blackings, let the dust of the heavy blacking settle 
before the charcoal is shaken on, for shaking one bag immedi- 
ately after the other causes the contents of each to become more 
or less mixed, and thus the full benefit from the charcoal is not 
obtained. To the objection of the loss of time, it might be 
said, after shaking on the heavy blacking as soon as the pat- 
tern is drawn, then, while waiting for the heavy blacking's dust 
to settle, the time might often be employed in drying and 
brushing oflf the patterns ; then, when every thing is ready, they 
can shake on the charcoal, and work as fast as possible until 
the pattern is drawn. If the speed is such as to get out the 
pattern before the charcoal becomes danq) and incorporated 



210 Kl.KMl'.NTS AM) MAN I r.\( TlUi; OF lOlNDKY lACINCiS. 

Willi tlio lic'iivy Mackiiij^f. tlii' "print" should l>o perfect; and 
in many cases there would lie no time lost. Of course brushing 
(ilT the icittern Hist allows it more time to dry. Nevertheless, 
if a jTood print is desii'etl, liy havinir a (lr\- jialtern, and folhjw- 
in^ the above rule, it will nut be the moulder's fault if it is not 
obtained. A blacking that will not print well can often be 
sleeked ; and, in many cases, charcoal is as benelicial in help- 
ing to finish a mould which is sleeketl as one which is printed. 
Charcoal is valuable in either case as long as the mould can 
be linislied before the charcoal becomes dam[), but after that 
more or less trouble may be experienced. 

"When blacking sticks, not only does it cause vexation and 
loss of time, but is often the cause of rough or scabbed 
skinned castings. 

In the Cuyahoga Foundry, we often have large green-sand 
moulds, which take a man half a day to sleek the blacking ou 
them : were the blacking stick}', much trouble would be ex- 
perienced, no matter how much wc might try to "doctor" it 
with charcoal. Where it takes a long time to sleek a blacked 
green-sand mould, and the blacking becomes sticky, we find 
the dust of silver lead an excellent thing to use, and wc often 
use it over ordinary blackings whether it is sticky or not. 

With a few foundries it is becoming quite a practice to coat 
their moulds entirely wnth silver lead ; and these moulds, when 
done, will shine like a mirror. The lead is chiefly used on ac- 
count of its peeling qualities. In putting it on a mould, many 
use camcl's-hair brushes ; and, again, others will shake it out 
of a bag, or throw it on by hand. Of course lead is expensive, 
therefore it is not apt to Ijc very popular. 

Not only is charcoal good to assist bag-dust sleeking, lint it 
also is an excellent article to have on hand for mixing with wet 
blacking. It frequently happens that blacking contains sub- 
stances of a very close or non-porous nature. These will often 
cause " blacking scabs." The introduction of a small jiro^tor- 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 211 

tion of charcoal will often remed}' this ; as the particles, being 
very light and porous, open u[) the pores of the mixture so as 
to cause the metal to lie more kindly to it. 

The use of blacking is simply to coat the surfaces of the 
mould with graphite or carbon, to prevent the heat of licpiid 
iron from fusing or eating into the sand. Moulding-sands are 
composed more or less of silica, together with smaller quanti- 
ties of potassa, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, etc. The po- 
tassa, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron, are the parts that fuse. 
They combine with the silica to form silicates, or a kind of 
glass, which, upon heavy eastings, may form a scale from -^y 
to \" thick, where the sand is not thoroughly protected with a 
coat of carbon, or, connnonly speaking, ])lacking. All black 
leads consist chiefly of carbon ; the other ingredients being 
alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc. The freer leads are of these 
latter ingredients, the more intense heat will they stand before 
they will fuse. There are some leads, it is said, that no heat 
will fuse. As all good blackings are composed more or less of 
graphite, or, commonly speaking, leads, the reader will readily 
perceive the cause of their preventing liquid iron from eating 
into the surface sand of moulds, and why the}' provide for 
smooth-skinned castings. Of course, it is to be understood 
most 1)lackings are but partly composed of leads. The more 
lead blackings contain, the better they are for peeling. This 
applies to loam as well as to green-sand moulds. Consequent- 
ly the larger per cent of graphite or lead blackings contain, 
the better. But as these blackings are expensive in proportion 
to the amount of graphite they contain, and as many foundry- 
men overlook quality to buy cheaply, it offers a premium to the 
manufacturer to use cheap materials in order to make clujap 
prices. The cheaper blackings are composed principally of 
Lehigh, coke, or gas-house carbons, with additions of various 
minerals, and contain little or no leads. Lehigh, coke, and 
carbons are seldom giouud pure. The particles, as generally 



212 i:i,i;mknts and MANri'ACTUiiK of i-olnduy facings. 

li<)\v(lL'ri<l, will lack collision, and thcriftjie would he !ii)t to 
lloat (ir wMsh wlicn ixmiiiM^ urecn-saiid luouMs ; llicivfore the 
iicci's^ity of Ihiir inixiiiu; in the various kinds of iiiiuLTals or 
clays to obtain the iXMiuiivd cohesion. The liner i»ure Lehigh, 
coke, or carbons are ground, the more cohesion will the}' 
possess. "When ground very fine (which is something seldom 
acconiplished), their cohesion may be sutricient to hold them 
without the use of any bond. 

The author, having for about two years been employed 
almost next door to the Cleveland Placing Mills, ol)tained from 
the miU's rornur manager, R. J. Hayes, an excellent insight 
into the manufacture of blackings. It is not a little surprising, 
the amount of machinerv and care required to turn out modern 
blacking. It would be a tedious job, and tiresome to the reader, 
to go into a nnnute description of the ditTerent crushers, pul- 
verizing machinery, etc , required to reduce the carbons, coke, 
Lehigh, leads, etc., which go to make up to a great extent our 
foundry ])lackingsr The machinery is to some extent similar 
to that of flou ring-mills. The materials being hard, they are 
required to pass through several reduction machines l)efore 
they are fed to the mills, after which they pass into the bolting- 
rccls, where they are sifted through silk cloth, containing, it is 
said, about twenty-nine thousand holes to the square inch. All 
particles too coarse to i)ass through the cloth are let out at the 
end of the reels, and returned to the grinders. A facing mill, 
so far as dust is concerned, is probably the dirtiest shop to be 
found. When in full operation, one can hardly breathe, or see 
any thing but dust. The least generator of dust is that com- 
monly called sea-coal facing. The making of this blacking re- 
(piires the least labor and manipulation of an}' with which mills 
deal ; as it is simply the product of a bituminous, or, as it is 
sometimes called, stone coal. A great many take it for granted, 
that, because this blacking is called sea-coal, it is in some way 
a sea-product. 8ea-coal is not what its uame implies. It ac- 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 213 

quired tliis name many years ago, when introduced as a fuel in 
P^nglaud, being carried by sea to Loudon; and tliis misnomer 
still clings to it. 

In this countr}', the sea-coal used in our foundries is princi- 
pally derived from the mining regions of the Youghiogheuy 
River and the Cumberland districts, and is selected for its free- 
dom from slate and sulphur, and its gas-bearing qualities. 
The quality of sea-coal blacking is less variable than that of 
an}- other blacking made, simply from the fact of its not being 
mixed with any other substances. Sea-coal, being mixed in 
with the sand, divides the particles, or fusible element of sand ; 
and what it don't divide it emits its gas among. The hydrogen 
and carbon sea-coal contains prevent, to a degree, sand fusing. 
There is a limit to the percentage of sea-coal that should 
be mixed with sand. When more than one of sea-coal to six 
of sand is used, unless the surface of the mould be well coated 
with good blacking, and the metal iioiired dull, there is in the 
heavy body of metal moulds much danger of the surface of 
the casting being more or less streaked or veined. Thorotigh 
mixing of facing -sand xoill, to a large degree, prevent this defect. 
When iron is poured into a mould faced with sand containing 
sea-coal, there is much gas generated. This gas, if not driven 
off by pressure, forms more or less of a cushion between the 
surface of the mould and metal. This cushion often prevents 
the iron from running into the corners and edges of moulds, 
and also often causes cold-shuts and smooth concave indenta- 
tions in castmgs. Moulds having been poured with dull iron, 
although the castnig may be heavily proportioned, will often 
present some of the above defects. In faced moulds, more or 
less of a gas cushion is raised ; and according to the amount 
of pressure, and the fluidity of the metal, the faster this cushion 
is destroyed. When strong facings are used upon thin cast- 
ings, or those poured dull, the metal often becomes set before 
this cushion is all destroyed. Sometimes sea-coal causes the 



214 ki.i;mi:nt.s and mam rAcrrin''. or foundky iACMNf;s. 

smfaci' of cnslings to Ik- covered with :i coat of what iiiiijlit he 
termed coal soot. This, to occur to any great extent, retjuires 
certain conditions that seldom happen to coinhine. 

In mixinir facing to assist in ol»taiiiiiig a full run and smooth- 
skinned casting, the moulder has often many points to consider. 
Many moulds arc made that require two or three different 
grades of facing, such as one i)art to six, eigiit, or ten : and 
not onl}' is the proportion and i)osition of the dilTercnt parts of 
eastings to be considered, but time of pouring, and intended 
fluidity of metal as well. The amount of sea-coal to use. ac- 
cording to conditions, and suggestions upon the subject, will be 
found in vol. i. p. 3G3. 

As Lehigh, coke, graphites, and gas-honse carbons foi-m so 
great a factor in assisting the peeling of castings, a .short his- 
tory concerning tliem may be interesting. Lehigh is simply a 
fine quality of Lehigh coal, chiefly obtained from the anthracite 
districts of Pennsylvania. It is essential that only tiie best 
quality should be used, as poor Lehigh containing slate and 
what is known as " nigger-head " would nut contain the amount 
of carbon required to make good blacking. 

Coke blackings are principally made from " Connellsville 
coke;" it being selected on account of its fixed carbon, said 
to be as high as ninety per cent. 

Carbon, or gas-house retort slag, being a pure carbon, would, 
were it not for its hard, refractory nature, be more extensively 
used. Its hardness makes it dillicult to be ground and bolted 
as fine as is necessary to make good l)lacking : therefore, when 
used, it is mixed with minerals that will overcome, to a degree, 
its refractory nature, and give it cohesion, which it lacks in a 
much greater degree than either Lehigh or coke. To give these 
refractory substances — Lehigh, coke, and carljon — cohesion, the 
class of material used has much to do with the peeling quality 
of the blacking. The more carbon the ingredient used to give 
cohesion contains, the richer and better the blacking to with- 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS 215 

stand heat. As leads contain the highest cohesive heat ele- 
ment, and are such an inii)ortant factor in facings and blackings, 
a few lines upon tlieir nature may not l)e out of place. A very 
fine grade of close-grained graphite or lead, and one exten- 
sively used, comes from Bohemia, Austria. Not only is this 
lead used in blacJcings, but also enters to some extent into the 
manufacture of stove-polish. Probably the most expensive lead 
used is that which is mined in the island of Ceylon. In its 
crude state, it looks like bright chips of burnished silver, from 
which fact it is commonly called silver lead. This is a very 
useful article, not only for mixing with blacking for green and dry 
sand, and loam work, but is also a splendid article to dust, in a 
dry state, over the surface of blacked moulds ; as it greatly assists 
the sleeking of the mould, and peeling of the casting. This 
lead is also ground for clectrotyping purposes, and is extensively 
used as a lubricator for cylinders, etc. While mentioning the 
leads produced abroad, America has also some mines of note: 
one especially, near Ticonderoga, N.Y., produces an excellent 
article, which is extensively used in making lead-pencils. 
North Carolina produces quantities of lead ; but as it is largely 
mixed with clays, hornblende, and other foreign substances, it 
is not of much value. Eastern Pennsylvania has several mines ; 
but as the lead requires so much treatment in cleaning, it is not 
very profitable to the producer. Tennessee has also vast beds 
of leads, more or less mixed with clays. Nova Scotia produces 
a lead which on account of its hard, flinty nature has so far 
been but little used. The leads of Ceylon and Europe, surpass- 
ing the home product, are therefore the ones chiefly used. 

Charcoal, to make a good dust, requires to be made from 
hard maple wood, and burned with great care. Soft or any 
stringy-grained wood is not adapted for making charcoal 
facings. Stringy-grained wood preserves its stringy nature 
when charred, and makes a harsh powder when bolted. Soft- 
wood charcoal is even worse; as it lacks the body necessary, 
beinir so li<>ht it will float or wash. 



^1(1 KI.KMKNTS AM) MANriACriKK OF FOl'NDUY FAf'INf;S. 

A imxliict iiol yet iiiciilinind, uiiil one soiiu'tinu's ustd in 
foimdiiis and niixtmvs of blackings, is soapsloUL'. Tliis is 
found in many of the Slalvs, and is I)y some foundiii-s nst-d 
(Hiitc extensively, wliile others condenni its use on account of 
the light color or skin it gives to castings. 

It is a well-known fact, that, although moulders use Macking 
every day, l>ut very few have the least idea of its manufacture, 
or properties which cause it to peel castings. 

This article may be effective in drawing attention and study 
to a material which, before it can be intelligently purchased 
or used, requires some knowledge of its coustitucuts and 
mauufacture. 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 217 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON, AND MEND- 
ING CRACKED CASTINGS. 

Can wrought-iron or steel be united to cast-irou? is a ques- 
tion that is sometimes asked. Either can be so united, but in 
the case of wrought-iron tlie union is so weak that for an}' 
purpose requiring strength it is useless. With steel, the point 
of union will be stronger than the cast-iron : at least, I obtained 
such results in experiments upon different brands of steel. 
Uniting steel or wrought-iron to cast-iron, l)y the process here 
set forth, is, as far as I know, original. I have made many 
inquiries from well-informed parties, and all say they never 
heard of its being done before. 

The principle here involved, of uniting steel to cast-iron, is 
similar to that which foundrymen call "burning;" and there- 
fore the strength of the union will depend- greatly upon the 
shape to be united, and on the plan adopted for uniting the 
pieces. In "The American Machinist" of Jan. 15, 1881, is 
the writer's first attempt at mechanical literature, in the shape 
of an article upon "Burning Heavy Castings." This article, 
also seen vol. i. p. 267, sets forth the proper principles to adopt 
in mending, or burning, when its adoption is practicable. 

In the cuts shown with this, Fig. 82 illustrates the old- 
fashioned style of burning, and the one which, even at the 
present day, is quite generally employed. This, in some cases, 
is excusable ; but it is a poor i)lan to use it for every job that 
comes along. In the first place, there is much more metal re- 
quired to burn or make a union ; and, in the second place, the 
burning or union is seldom so thorough as by the plan illustrated 



218 



WKLDINfJ STK1:L to CAST-IKON. 



ill Fiij. ftO. At K tli(> ra<i<]^o(l line roprosonls tlio droppinfir 
iiictiil fallini!; directly ui)on tUo nuitcrials to he united ; tiie lliiid 
iiH'tal. liy its stiii<injj; force, soon eating into tlie solid. 15y the 
(•Id-fashioned i>!an (Kig. H2), this eatin<^ process is lost, from 
tiie fact that tlie falhn<^ metal can strike but a very small i)or- 
tion of that to he hnrncil. If u union is made, it has to be 
caused eutin-ly by the nietal's heat and llow ; as its falling force 




Viutlng Steel to Cast Iron 



Fig. 80. 



counts for bnt little. E represents the metal flowing into the 
cavity F, and // its flowing out. The inlet-gate being higher 
than the outlet, there of course is a current, upou which mainl}- 
depends tlie success of the operation. 

In jobs of tliis kind, the heat of the metal, length of How, 
and nature of the work, must be carefully considered in deciding 
as to the strengtli of the union. .Sometimes, by testing with a 
hammer the solidity of the parts may be determined ; but, as 
a geiu'ial tiling, o])servance of the points named is nlied u^ton. 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 



219 



In the burning of castings, invention and judgment are called 
for^ as the exact o2)erations auitable for one job ivill seldom 
do for another. 

In the engravings are represented four plans suggestive of 
ideas iu the art of burning. Having noticed two figures, 
Figs. 80 and 81 will be referred to. The left of Fig. 80 
represents the burning of large flat surfaces. The reason 
the mould is inclined is to insure keeping bare the material 
to be burned or united to the cast-iron. In this cut are 
embodied two plans of gating. At S is an inlet-gate, placed 




Mending a C'racheJ I'lange. 
Fig, 81, 



Old Hashioned Style of H.urning. 
Fig. 82. 



SO as to be opposite the outlet P, thereby causing a flow over 
the entire surface. Were the surface broader than 2", there 
should be branch runners cut from the main gate S, to assist 
the spreading of the metal over the entire surface. The basin 
and gates, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, give ideas to show how 
the metal may be made to drop directly on the surface. The 
inchnation given the mould should not be more than enough to 
insure an easy flow. In the burning or uniting of large surfaces, 
it IS best, when practicable, to have the plate or body which is 
to be united to the cast-iron made as hot as possible ; for, the 



220 WKI.DINf; S'n.Kl, TO CAST-IKON. 

Iiottrr tlic iilrilf, llic less lliiicl iiicImI will Ik- rc'iuircd to make a 
wcl.l. 

In sDiiie casi's tlic sti'd or wnnifilit-iroii inijilil l)o hcntt'd in 
a, foij^e or furnace until the face to he united was al)out at a 
fu.sin<};-point ; then liy (|uickly jihicing the hod\' in a. ready- 
formed mould (which would, of course, require to he made of 
some such a material as loam or dry sand), and covering 
it with tlic C()\)e, the liquid cast-iron would n-quire little if 
any "■ llowinii; throuuh " in ordi-r to make a weld. Such a 
jirocess wonld also he commendahlc in view of its diminishing 
the contraction strains. The strains that must exist in large 
surface l)odies that are welded with such a difference in tem- 
perature as the " cold-l)uruii)g " process demands, cannot Init 
he serious, and often the cause of fractures or cracks in the 
welded hody. 

The cut of the "mending a cracked flange" shows a plan 
that may be applied in various forms. The section represents 
the actual burning of a cracked flange by Robert Watsou, in 
Todds & Co.'s foundry, Leithwalk, Scotland. The casting 
was a cylinder, one flange of which was cracked half wa}' 
around. The casting being placed in about the position shown, 
the parts around the crack were covered with cores, to prevent 
the metal from striking or burning other than the portion in- 
tended. The cores were made in short sections, and, of course, 
expressly for the job. In mending the cracks, it was done in 
sections of from 6" to 8" \n circumference at a burning. The 
stream of metal would fall directly into the crack, until it was 
seen to have cut about f" of an opening. After each burning 
became solid, the cylinder, having a chain around it hitched to 
the crane, would be rotated into place for the next operation. 
The arrangement at one end of the portions to be l)nrned was 
such as to allow the metal to run off. thereby preventing the 
gathering of a head that would prevent the falling stream from 
forcibly entering the crack. The point of '•• run-off" would be 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 221 

about on a level with the highest point of the circumference. 
As iron runs level, the surface of the mended portion would 
present something like the section H. This unevenness could, 
to some extent, be chipped off, so as to leave a circle as near 
as .could be without doing injury by jarring. As soundness, 
not symmetr}', was the point sought, a little roughness was not 
objectionable. In burning such a crack, there is a liability that 
the hot iron will eat its way through, and leave the inside, at 
M, rough. To prevent this, cores could be made to the 
proper circle, and- firmly rammed up against it, or a loamy 
facing could be used at this place. As to the success of the 
operation, Mr. "Watson says that the cylinder, about two 
months after the operation, was returned to have the balance 
of the flange mended ; it having cracked, while the mended 
portion remained as sound as any portion of the cylinder. 
Some may argue that the first burning was the cause of the 
second crack : it may have been so. And this is a point that 
should be often considered ; for, no doubt, such burning will 
often cause more or less strains elsewhere. To assist in pre- 
venting this, the casting to be burned should be made as hot 
as practicable, either by placing it hi an oven, or by surround- 
ing it with fire or hot irons. In this case the casting was not 
only heated in the oven, but hot scraps of iron were placed 
upon it. The crack was mended during the time of one heat ; 
and, as Mr. Watson puts it, he never worked more lively nor 
sweat so much in his life. 

As already stated, steel and cast-iron can be united. I will 
further explain the cut at right of Fig. 80, as it may present 
ideas in arranging for the union of many differently shaped 
articles. 

This mould represents the uniting of a piece of steel 1" 
square b}' 12" long to the same-sized piece of cast-iron. The 
process was as follov/s : A pattern 1" square by 24" long is 
rammed up in a flask. In the bottom board, as shown, is a 



222 W r,Ll)IN(l STHKL TO CAST-IRON. 

hole :ili(»iil 2" in (liiumtcr. This admits of A" thicknofs of 
sand to pii'Vciit tlic hot iron whidi iiiiis liirotigh the 1" iiole 
iVoin ltiiniiii;j; the hoard, and also causes more surety in piug- 
!j;ing-u[) ; for, were the hole surrounded with wowl, the hot iron 
would burn itself through, and make the i)lugging-u[) a blun- 
dering job. Il would l)e better in all cases if iron plates were 
used instead of the wooden l»ottoni l)oards. In faet, if all the 
llask were iron, it would be l)est. Tiie mould having been 
UKuU', the piece of steel is hxid in, an<l tiic m<juld closed. 
Tlun, alter being (irmly clamped together, it is ui>-ended in a 
pit, as shown; and then, with about a hundred pounds of hot 
iron, start pouring a steady small stream. Wiien within about 
twenty-live [lounds of the end, slacken the pouring, so as to 
have but a small stream, at which time let the outlet A Ije 
(fuicklj/ and reUabbj stopped. After this, quicken the iK>uriug 
until the mould is lilled up. Properly sloppiii'j the outlet is very 
essential; for, if not done successfully the first time, it is as inju- 
rious to the buraing as is slow, blundering welding at the black- 
smith-forge. A good plan for stopping is to securely place a 
l)ointcd ball of clay ou the butt end of a rammer or iron stop- 
per, make sure aim, and (irmly hold the hole closed until the 
metal is set. The gate B illustrates the use of side inlets, 
should it be desirable to burn more than one piece in the same 
flask. 

Tiic lurning of steel is by no means restricted to straight 
1)nrs. A variety of forms might l)c united l)y simply making 
the moulds the shape cf the article wante 1, and then placing the 
steel in its proper place. The gates could be often fonned, 
and the mould so placed as to have the hot cast-iron flow over 
most of the exposed surface, to an outlet. In some cases, 
there might be a necessity for moie than one outlet, as well as 
inlet, to which there would be no ol)jectiou. The point to be 
aimed at is, to have a deadfall upon all possible exposed parts, 
and an outlet from same if practicable. With many moulds, it 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 223 

would be better were they of dry sand, or loain ; a,s the drop- 
ping and washing of much running iron would often cause a 
green-sand mould to produce a rough-skinned job, and cause 
dirt in the mould, which would of course be injurious to the 
work. 

Cast-iron used for burning purposes should he very soft, and 
the temperature of the melted iron as high as possible. The 
reason for giving soft iron the preference is simply because 
soft iron does not chill as quickly as hard iron, and will retain 
its life or fluidity longer, and also will form a stronger union. 
The amount of iron to use for burning purposes will be regu- 
lated by the class of burning to be do)te, and condition of the 
iron xised, etc. For direct falling upon plain sqtuire or round 
surfaces, the following tal)le might in some cases be used. 
The tal)le at its best is but a rough approximation ; for in some 
cases it might be in excess, and in others it might prove deli- 
cient. In burning any work that needs a stead}- stream, we 
should have plenty of iron ; then, in the methods which have 
been described, and by the use of good judgment, we should 
be able to decide when sufficient metal has been poured in ; 
then the pouring can b(? stopped, and the remaining metal used 
for pouring other work. Tlie amount of iron that may suc- 
cessfully !)uru a like piece of work to-daj^ may to-morrow be 
insufficient. There are many things which cannot always be 
controlled in giving to any calculation a certainty of assured 
success for burning or mending castings. 

For a surface of 2", square or round, use 250 pounds ; 3", 
400 pounds ; 4", 550 jwunds ; 5", 700 pounds ; G", 850 pounds ; 
7", 1,000 pounds. Above 7", for every additional inch added 
to the square or diameter, add 200 pounds. This, if con- 
tinned up to a surface of 20" square of round, would call for 
3,600 pounds of hot iron to accomplish the burning (for the 
square surfaces, it might be well to add about ten per cent to 
the given weights) . A point that might be well to mention is 



22\ w i:li)IN(; stkkl to cast-iuon. 

lli:iL tlif jiarls to bo hiinicd should 1)0 cliippi-d, or tlic sonlo 
roinovod, so as to givo tho lluid iron tlio bost possible clianoo 
to oat into its surface. Any who are interested in this subject 
will lind additional infonnaticMi in the article '' Hurning Heavy 
Castings," vol. i. p. 2G7. Before closing it might be well to 
state that the softer the metiil is in the cast-iron castiug to be 
burnt, tlio lu'tter the chances are for making a successful weld, 
and also tlu- less is the risk of cracking the castnig during 
the operation or afterward. After the burning, the slower the 
cooling, the loss the danger of checks or cracking. In many 
cases it is well to keep the ca-sting warm as long as practical, 
l)y surrounding it with hot scraps of the iron used for the 
liurning. 

Tile subject of mending or burning is one well worth stud}'- 
iug, i\m\ one tiiat generally calls for good judgment and expe- 
rience. Before a novice undertakes a difficult job of this Jiind, 
it looxdd he better for him to experiment zcith unimportant pieces. 
Burning is a job that seldom can be done twice, on account 
of the surface losing much of its life or texture. Should the 
second burning be required, the fractured surface should be 
cut down until good inetal is again seeli ; but in all ca.ses use 
ViW precaution towards making thejirst burning a success. 



FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND TITS. 225 



FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND TITS. 

Tlierc having been recently built an addiliou to the foundry 
in which the author has averaged ten hours per day as foreman 
for the last three years (the Cuyahoga Works, Cleveland, C), 
it has occurred to him that a description of the laying-out of the 
ovens, moulding-pits, and cranes might interest othere, and 
give ideas which would be applicable in other instances. The 
black border represents the outline of the foundry. The new 
shop, as bliown, is partly divided from the old shop by the par- 
tition-walls A B. In the old shop, there are four cranes, two 
cupolas, brass furnaces, moulding-pits, etc. As there is noth- 
ing except their antique histor}' that could be set forth to inter- 
est the reader, I have omitted showing a plan of the old shops, 
cranes, pits, etc., and devoted the space to showing section- 
views of the loam-pit, ovens, etc., of the new shop. Credit is 
due the president of the works, J. F. Ilollowa}', for providing 
for comfort, and furnishing handy facilities for the new shop ; 
no expense being spared to provide every thing requisite in that 
direction. "We have abundance of light and ventilation, steam- 
cranes that rapidly do the moxing of heavy loads, excellent 
moulding-pits, and ovens that surpass any I know of for prop- 
erly drying moulds or cores. Although we use slack or soft 
coal for the fires, a mould or core will, when dry, be almost as 
clean as when first put into the oven. Another important 
feature is, that the ovens will dry rapidl}', and still not burn, a 
mould or core. 

The three ovens, as will l)e seen, are fired from one pit. The 
draught flues being at extreme ends of the oven, and the channel 
for beat to travel being diverted from side to side, there is but 



22«> ror.NDKY addition. -ovkns and rns. 

a small cliaiu'c for iicnt to cscapo cntcrinjr tlirotijih tlii' joints 
aiitl tliickiu'ss of the hoilc r-|ilatrs up into the ovi-ii before it can 
eiitiT tlif IliU' at J\ IL and A'. Tlif Mnuw-likc lines represent 
the heat passini; from the lires to tiie Hue. Tiie partitions, x , 
divert the direetion of the heat, anil also support the covering 
plates and earriage-track. A ckarer idea of |)artitions, etc., 
may be had from the elevation of the oven at K. The covering 
plates, 2, 3, 4, 5, G, and 7, arc boiler iron \" thick, cut into 
sections the width of the flue's partitions. As neither of the 
oveais is partitioned like another, the sizes of plates all differ. 
The core-oven plan is shown having the plates and track lairl. 
As will be seen, the plates upon the oiitside of the track, which 
are shown I)lack, arc free at any time to be lifted, in order to 
clean out the soot. Were the i latcs in one continuous piece, 
the width of ovon, then to clean out the ovens under Hues 
would necessitate the lifting up of the carriage-track. Where 
t!ie fire enters the Ih-st flue or paitition, the bojlir-plates are 
left out, and in their place a cast iron plate \" thick, having 
prickers "2" long, and daubed up with fire-clay, is used. This 
is to prevent the direct flainc from luckling and burning out 
the plates. 

There arc no holes whatever in any of the plates ; the heat 
pa'^sing through them and their joints, which, of course, are not 
air-tight, heats up the oven. Were there holes in the plates, 
they would seriously injure tlie draught of the under flues, 
and also let much smoke into the ovens, thereby destroying 
essential points to be overcome in using slack for firing. To 
be able to fire with slack or soft coal, and still keep moulds 
and cores free from soot, is something that will be ajipreciated 
by all moulders and core-makers that work aroimd ovens. 
Not only does soot make every thing look dirty, but it is more 
oi' less productive of rough eastiiiga. 

Another arrangement which I doubt I)eing found in any other 
foundry oven is that for [JreveiiLing smoke. L [)ou each siclc of 



/ 



y^r-i — : — . . . 



"^\ J'/'<^\\\liuSj Floors ^N^'^'Vi Co^>^»om 

I- iimh 1. \Vi ■ 




O Fit/. «,7. TT \-\J Plan and Scctiot 

of 
Bulling Binders 



Section A. B. ~ )\j- "/ 



um 









1 



- ^-'-f=^ 



is^^j 






-3r-=-5j — 3- 







Channel ^ 7? "^ 



Hlvviiliuu of Loam I'it 



Elevation of Oven 



Ciii/<ilioijn H i/rku J-'oundry lliliUtion I'lant. 



FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND riTS. 227 

the fireplaces, about on a level with the fire, are f" openings, 
seen at E in elevation. To admit air to these openings, there 
arc channels leading from the outer fronts. In the rear of 
these openings, the brick is left open about 4" x 6", running 
the entire length of fireplace. This opening gives a reservoir 
in which the air becomes heated before being drawn into the 
fire. This is, I believe, claimed to be beneficial in assistuig 
" smoke-burning " or combustion. 

The grate surface for the fires contains an area equal to about 
32"x 38". The fireplaces are all faced with one thickness of 
fire-bricks, and the tops of fireplaces are arched over with fire- 
bricks. Under the large oven are two fireplaces. The one 
nearest core-oven is used for heating the same, and is so con- 
structed, with damper arrangement, that, should an extra heat 
be required in the large oven, both of the fires can be turned 
on to it. As shown at /), in "elevation of oven," each oven 
has a small man-hole door whereby the flue leading to the 
chimney /^can readily be cleaned. 

The tops of the ovens are covered with a scries of arches. 
Fig. 83 shows how the wrought-iron giiders. Fig. 84, are held 
together. For the two small ovens, two rows of bolts are used ; 
for large oven, three rows. Upon the tops of these ovens we 
store and keep shop-tools, etc. The way the tops are formed, 
tons of weight can be laid upon them, and do no harm ; and the 
combined area of the tops makes a splendid storeroom for sys- 
tematically keeping foundry tools. Altogether the ovens arc a 
success, and a credit to their designer, JMr. Holloway. 

A very novel and no doubt good plan for heating up ovens 
is that lately adopted in Mackintosh & Hemphill's (Fort Pitt 
Works) Foundry, Pittsburgh, Penn. The foreman, William II. 
Conner, informed me that thoy dried tlicir moulds and cores by 
the use of ''natural gas." The old fireplace, which had been 
used for firing with coal, was simply filled up with bricks thrown 
in loosely : then, a small shaving fire being started, a very light 



228 FOrNDKY ADDITION. -OVKNS AND IMTS. 

jet of llio <;ns was (1( Tivcivd aiiionjr the l)ilcl<s. TIic jrns, when 
igiiitod, raised tlie hiicks t(j :i wliito licat ; aiitl the licat wliicli 
they would throw olT heated up the oven. 

The loaiu-pil shown is made up of four cast-iron rinjjs, the 
thicivuess of rim being 1^". The castings were made from a 
segment about 21" long. The rings have a ta[)er of \\" io tlie 
foot, and wlicn togi'tiier form steps, as shown. These steps 
are very handv for building staging upon, or standing on, and 
in getting in and out of the pit. When moulds are so small as 
not to sulliciently (ill the pit, we ram them u}) in curbing ; the 
mould, of course, being in the pit. When such moulds are 
cast and ready to be taken out, they can be hoisted out alto- 
gether ; or a few of the bolts are loosened, and the cuil)ing 
hoisted up. This leaves the sand free to be shovelled up, and 
castings taken out. Were the mould suHleiently lai-gc to fdl 
the pit, the sand rammed between the mindd and cast-rings 
would then, of course, require to l)c shovelled or dug out. In 
such a case, the benefit of the taper of the pit is seen. The 
taper allows the shovel to free the sand much easier than were 
the pit straight. When the pit has Iteeu cUig down to about 
half its depth, if the mould and casting are not exceptionally 
heavy, the two cranes can be hitched on, and the whole hoisted 
out without further digging. 

Making the pits with cast-iron rings provides something solid 
and reliable ; which is as cheap as, if not cheaper than, any of 
the other styles commonly used. 

Many will wonder at, and not comprehend, the use of the 
"entrance-pit" shown. For many shops, there is no call for 
such an under entrance ; and, again, there are many shops where 
it would be found very useful. An under entrance, such as 
shown, is an excellent vent channel, for safely venting moulds 
similar to cylinders, etc., having heads cast on as shown on 
p. 5G. Not only with us is this channel handy for carrying off 
vents ; but it is a necessity on account of the shop's old cstab- 



FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND TITS. 229 

lisliofl custom of mnkinp; cylinders, tlio plan of which is shown 
in the chapters "Casting Whole or in Parts" (p. 54;, and 
" MonUling a Jacket Cylinder " (p. GO). 

As will be noticed, the pit is entirely under the swing of one 
crane : the other crane reaches to about its centre. The loca- 
tion of the pit gives ns all the advantages possible : in fact, the 
plan of every thing we well studied in order to utilize every 
part of the shop, and make it as handy as practicable. The pit 
is out of the way of the green-sand moulders ; and the loam- 
moulds can, without any changing of cranes, be taken off the 
Dvon-carriages, and lowei'ed into any portion of the pit ; and 
when needed the mould can be poured with two crane ladles. 

The plan of the core-maker's portion of shop is one which 
would be hard to equal for heavy work, being handy and out of 
evorybod3''s way. The oven is right at the core-maker's hand, 
and he has a crane he can use at any moment. 

The loam-moulders work under the same crane that loads the 
oven-carriages, and in a portion of the shoi) where they are 
not interfered with by any other class of work. 

The green-sand bolting-down floors are, I think, shown 
plainly enough not to require description. 

Fig. 8;") gives the dimension of the binders laid in the bottom 
of bolting-down floors. The dots shown, and numbered 1, 2, 
3, 4, etc., locate the distances of the bolting-hooks shown at 
Fig. 8G. The square end fits the binders, and the round eye is 
the end into which screw-hooks are hitched when bolting down 
a cope. The tops of the hooks, Fig. Sfi, come up within three 
or four inches of the top of moulding-floor. From the top of 
floor down to top of planks upon bottom binders, will average 
eight feet The half of longest bolting-down floor, towards the 
ovens, is over nine feet deep. This gives us a good chance to 
sink bottom parts of moulds made of loam, upon which green 
sand is made to form the upper portion of " deep moulds." 
This is a much-practised custom with us in making deep green- 



H'^O rorNDiiY Annn loN.-ovKNs an'd ttis. 

sand nioiiMs, as it provcnls lH)ttoiii slraiiiiiiij. Tliis loiiij Itolf- 
iii<j;-(l()\\ 11 lloor is set .slanting with llic s(|iiarL' of tiiu sli<»|(. so as 
to admit of its liciiMj; icacliod at any pfjition liy a crane. an<l 
also in ordt-r to brini; the end nearest the oven under the loam 
end erane so far as practiealde in order that the Ijottom parts 
of moulds in the loam may he tidccn direct from the oven-car- 
riaj^es, and lowered down into tlu- inouldinti-floor. The reason 
wc did not make the .shortest l)ollin;L^-down llcjcjr longer than 
shown w:us l)ccause we expected to l)e ol)ligod to sink a small 
loam-pit between it and the large loam-pit shown. 

The ''delivery track " shown conve3's tlie iron from cupolas 
up to the cranes, and takes the ca-sting out to the yard crane. 
One car answers both purposes ; and, as the subject is of 
interest, it is shown on p. 232. 

It is to l)e understood that this plant Is not given as a mcHlel 
to consti'uct from, but simi)ly .as illustrative of ideas that in 
many ways may be of value in helping to locate shop tools, 
etc., to the best advantage, and also aid in gt'ttmg foundry 
builders to leain that the day ha,s i>assed for them to think 
'• any thing is good enough for a foundry." 



u 



;i" 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED. 231 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED. 

TiiK engravings seen are perepectivc and plan views of a 
carriage nsed in " onr foundry." Wishing to " kill two Ijirds 
with one stone," I devised it so as to be safe for conveying 
large ladles of metal as well as heavy castings. 

With the ladle set in the car, should any thing break, it 
could not fall more than two inches, nor is there any danger of 
the ladle sliding or falling off the car. To see a heavy ladle 
full of fluid iron awaj' up off the ground, does not inspire one 
with feelings of security or confidence, although it may be per- 
fectly safe. Many shops that are obliged to truck their metal 
and castings have two cars, one for ladles, and the other for 
castings. I think many of them would prefer to have one, 
could it be made to answer the purpose of both. 

The construction of the car is very simple, and it costs but 
little labor to make. The car was cast "open sand ; " the ladle- 
box was formed with a dry-sand core. The holes as B, E, JC, 
and F, made a good bearing for the box-core to rest upon. 
These holes were cast in for the purpose of lightening the 
casting. 

The pockets, as at //// (Fig. 88), are simply for the purpose 
of placing in arms, should a wider carriage be desired. The 
carriage-wheels are IG" diameter, and are cast solid. The axles 
are wrought iron, 3" diameter, and were cast in the wheels. 
Before the axles were cast in the wheels, they were used as 
chills to form the carriage's axle bearings. The axles at this 
time were S^^" diameter. After being cast in the wheels, they 
were turned down to 3" diameter, in order to make tliem ex- 




I*lan and Elevation View of Car. 
Fig. 88. 



I.ADI.i; AMI CASTINfi (WItlilAflK ff )M I;IN KD. 



ju'tlv rtMitrMl with the wliccl rims. :inil :iL llic smiiic time to leave 

a lltllc |il:i\ ill I lie lic.-irillL;-:. 

The caiN as si-cu al Ry is made hollow, so as to form nti oil- 




Fig. 87. 

hox in which waste saturated with oil can be kept. The 
leathers over the axles, shown in view (Fig- t>7), are for the 
purpose of keeping out dirt. 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED, 238 

I think the practical man will sec tiiat the plan described is 
one which slioiild cause a heav^- carriage to run easily. Al- 
though this carriage weighs about forty-five hundred pounds, 
two men can readily move it. For pulling heavy loads, we have 
a wire cable arrangement which is operated by power. The 
carriage-wheels might by special arrangement be made with 
their axles run in "anti-friction" bearings similar to the method 
set for thin "Travelling Crane" (p. 414), if one wished to im- 
prove upon the car shown. In making such anti-friction bear- 
ings, it must l)c remembered, verj' " fine fits " are necessary to 
make the bearings a success. 

The pci-spectivc view of car shows it loaded with one of our 
crane screw-ladles, which for simplicity in design and good 
working is worthy of notice. The hand-wheel is detachable, 
ftnd the rim of same is made of wood. This prevents it from 
becoming hot from the ladle's heat, thereby leaving it free to 
handle. 

While the carriage shown is applicable to but few shops, it 
may give ideas that some time will come in play in others. To 
state the most weight such a car should carr}', is at its best but 
guess-work : however, I would sa}', that, if squarely loaded 
over the axles, the car should carry thirty tons. 



231 CUIH.Kl) HULLS, KOLL 1-1-ASKS, IILNNKKS, AND (;ATKS. 



MAKING CHILLED ROLLS, AND IJOLL FLASKS, 
UUNNLHS, AM) CATKS. 

In tlio oi)p;r:\viiijT will be foiiiul iihistruh-d dilTcrcnt ways of 
oonstiiictiiiu- lla-sks. inniu'is, etc., for making fliilli'(l njlls. For 
a viTV valunlilf rcaliiri' ol" this artic-lc, I am iiidrldi-d lo .lolm 
K. Parker of lii'loit, Wis., who, a short time since, sent nu' ;i 
sketch and description of a simple and novel plan, and one 
that may be vahial)lc for other purposes, than roll-making. 

I\Ir. I'arker was led to devise the rigging shown, to overcome 
the dillicnlty of the upper neck cracking, caused by the vertical 
contraction of the body of tlie roll in cooling. For this pnr- 
jiosc he makes what he terms a sleeve, as shown in the engrav- 
ing (Fig. SD). It is made of cast-iron, and is about i,'" thick 
when (inished. It is turned on the outside so i\s to fit eiusily in 
the chill. Tiic distance this sleeve sits into the roll varies from 
G" to 20", according to the length of roll. The upper neck of 
this roll is moulded the same as in an ordinary lla.sk. In clos- 
ing, or getting the mould ready to cast, the height of the neck is 
regulated by placing three scantling, or screw nuts and blocks, 
as rei)resented at 7), ^I, and A". The blocks A' can l)e either 
iron or wood, and ditferent sizes and numbers of pieces can be 
usi'd as reijuireiL 

The rolls thus made are used for paper macliinery, and var}' 
in sizes from 6" up to \l" in diameter, and from -10" to SO" in 
length. The chills are made in lengths of 20" to 30", and set 
one upon the other, as shown at /'. To luuuUe these chills, 
tlie trunnions shown at R are used. 

DilTerent thicknesses of chills are recpiired for dilTerent 



CHILLED ROLLS. ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES 235 

diameters of rolls. As a rule, about |" of chill for cverj' 1" 
diameter of roll is about rigbt. lu the instance of a roll 14" 




Fig. 89. 

diameter, the chill will be 5i" ; for one 30", Hi". This thick 
body of iron is not for the purpose of resisting the pressure 



2.''li CIIII.F.I'.I) ItOM.S. ItOI.I, ri.ASKS, IirNNKUS, AM) f;ArKS. 

(liic to the Ik'.kI, lull t^) circff .'i ticcp chill frcMii tlio siirfnrn of 
till' casting, mill to |tir\iiit ilic cliill liom cnicUiiig, ivMiltiiii; 
from lliL' siiifuci' bring stidfU'iily hcjitcd. 

The foUowiiiLT i^ :i Uihie giving the thickness of chill for rolls 
ranging from 1" diamctAT to iJO", and varying in length from 
oiu" foot u[) to that ix'(|uiix'd for the common lengths of rolls 
made. 



I>IAMETKK 


TlllCKNKSS 


DiAMKTKK 


TlllCKNKSS 


! DiAMKTKK 


TlIK KNEMU 


OF KOLI,. 


OF Chili,. 


OP KOLL. 


or Chill. 


OF Roll. 


OF CUILL. 


4" 


2" 


13' 


41' 


22" 


sy 


5" 


2r 


14" 


5}" 


23" 


H' 


('." 


3' 


ir>" 


5^ 


24" 


9' 


7" 


sr 


IC 


G" 


2.r 


9J' 


8' 


3^" 


17' 




2(;" 


9J" 


0' 


31" 


18" 


Of 


27" 


lOJ" 


10" 




19" 


'i' 


28" 


lOi" 


w 


41" 


20" 


7i" 


29" 


lor 


iL'" 


■\r 


21" 


71" 


30' 


Hi' 



The diameters 4", 5", 6", 7", and 8" are not, as will be seen, 
flgnred upon the basis of §" per 1" given, for the reason the 
body of the chill wonld then be a little too light for safety ; or, 
as stated al)ove, it is the sudden heating-ni) of the chill's sur- 
face, and not the pressure of the metal, that we have, in great 
measure, to contend with. The smaller rolls have nearly the 
same inlluence in suddenly heating the surface of the chills as 
the larger rolls. Suddenly lu-ating the surface of course ex- 
pands it : therefore more or less strain nmst be exert«^'d upon 
the cold iron back of the surface. From tliKs cause I have 
seen car-wheel chills fly in two pieces before the mould was 
lialf full of metal. I think the moulder will now see why the 
author did not adhere to his basis of ^" to the 1" for the small 
sizes of chills mentioned, and the advisability of making the 



CHILLED ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 237 

smaller-sized chills thicker in proportion than those above the 
9" in diameter shown. 

In making chills, the best of iron should be used, or they 
will uot last long enough to pay for the making. The surface 
of a chill becomes rough from use, then checks, and eventually 
is useless. Often, in breaking them up, from the surface to an 
inch in depth the iron is found to be burned. 

"When chills are made in sections, to make different lengths, 
or for convenience in handling, the joints must be made true 
and tight. For clamping together, flanges can be cast on, as 
shown at Y. 

Mr, Parker, for securing his flask, uses two long bolts and 
a top ring binder, shown at N. This binder, being placed on 
top of the sleeve , is bolted to the bottom plate by bolts E E. 
Should it be desirable to use such sleeves independently of the 
lower part of the flask, lugs or handles could be cast on 
the chills, and the sleeve held down and operated by means 
of the bolts shown at F F. The lower portion, or neck of the 
rolls, is moulded as shown at the right-hand side of the cut. 
The flask parts at Fto allow for making a whirl-gate, as shown 
in the plan of '^ joint ^^ " of thesmall flask (Fig. 90). 

For ramming-up the pouring-runner X, Mr. Parker uses a 
cast-iron pipe, the arrangement of the nowel being similar to 
that shown in the details of the small roll flask. Black-lead is 
rubbed on the chills to prevent the iron from sticking, and the 
rolls are poured with hot non. 

Some men, after the chills have been taken out of the oven, 
where the}' were placed to be heated for casting in, wash the 
face of the chill over with a thin coat of blacking, composed of 
ordinary blacking wet with molasses-water. 

In order to economize space, I have shown, attached to the 
cut of Parker's flask, another device sometimes used in pouring 
such jobs. 

W W are plan and section of a basin which can be connected 



2.'i8 riiii.i.i:i> uom.s. uoi.i, ii.asks, inNNKUs, and catks. 

to or cast on tlio end of oitlicr a square or roiiml niiincr-pipe. 
li reitresents a i]nart('r-lnrn pipe uv box, jointed to tiie runiu-r- 
pipe and tlasU al S S. Tliis anan;4cMicnt saves llie work of 
parting llir tla>l< to ^ate the mould. 

At 1, ll, ."). and I, is shown the manner of eonstnieting the 
elI»o\v in halves and liolliiii^ 'together. Tiiis permits of its 
Iteini; taken apart, shoidd there be any trouble in getting out the 
c:isling, or from the breaking of gates. 

It would be safer to have the lower joint S secured by bolts; 
the upper joint S can be secured with clamps if desired. 

The small chill flask represented in Fig. DO is a very conven- 
ient one, and its construction embodies ideas that are ai)i»licable 
to other jobs. 

At K K is shown a sectional view of the guide-iings made in 
chills. These are all turned out exactly the sanie diameter. 

R R represent grooves turned in a citst-ircMi '' mould-board." 
This is used to ram u^) the cope and nowel on. There is also 
turned in it a recess to centre and hold the neck pattern. By 
the use of this rigging, there is no possiljility of the ueck 
getting out of the centre iu closing. 

With the exception of the single-whirl gate, "joint EE'' 
shows the plan or top view of the nowel section J/. "Joint 
B B" shows the bottom view of section M. 

Numerals 2, 3, 4, and 5, on the plan view of "joint S S," 
represent lugs by which to clamp the bottom-plate. 

At joint B /J, the guide-i)ins are made to serve the purpose 
of bolts or clamps. Holes XX are for clamping and lifting 
the chills. The runner-l>ox has a loose plate made in halves. 
To hold this plate, two straps. 7' T. with tlireads, are used. 

Gating ciiillcd rolls is always a point of i)rominent consider- 
ation. 

As a rule, the hotter, the faster, and with the more uliirl, 
the iron fills the mould, the cleaner the chilled face. The 
temperature of the iron must, liowever, be regulated by a 




Fig. 90. 



CHILLED ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 230 

consideration of preserving the chilled roll from checking or 
cracking. 

I })refer getting the gate as near as practicable to the body 
of the roll, as by so doing the whirl of the iron is increased. 
The iron should be poured as rapidly as is possible, without 
any stopping. 

In the cut (Fig. 89), as shown, one basin is represented 
higher than the other. Some prefer the lower one, — so as 
to make sure of not filling the feeding-head too full, thereby 
leaving room for hot feeding-iron. Others prefer the higher 
basin W<, as giving more force to the metal entering the mould. 

By careful watching of the moulds, large basins of iron, 
which are uot conveniently melted in the absence of an air- 
furnace, arc avoided. It is only the chilled portion of the roll 
that rcHpiires rapid pouring or filling ; so, witli long-necked rolls, 
the pouring can be slower toward the last, giving a better 
opportunity to " watch up " the rise of the iron. 

V>y using the double wliirl-gate, shown at " joint BB," nearly 
double the amount of whirl is given the iron. With this double 
gate, I have seen dirt gathered to the centre in a ball nearly 3" 
m diameter. This would rise up through the neck into the 
feeding-head in a solid body so as to admit of being taken out, 
leaving nothing but clean metal in the head and casting. Had 
the mould been poured without the whirl-gate, this dirt would 
have been great!}' scattered, and lodged against the surface of 
the roll or under the upper neck. 

This whirl-gate is useful not only in making rolls, but often 
for other classes of castings, especially those cylindrical iu 
form. 



240 MULLDLNU MACHINES. 



MOULDING-MACHINES. 

AViTH somo classes of woik the use (;f :i macliino for assisting 
the moulder in inakin<f e:ustin<rs with accuracy and su<'cess is 
often very admissible ; but never in moulding have machines 
produced the excess of product over hand-labor, that machines 
generally accoinplisli in the other trades. Many have the idea 
that because moulding-shops are not strung overhead with lines 
of shafting, pulleys, belts, etc., they are away ''behind the 
age." In one sense it ma}' be true ; but they are bi-hind more 
on account of their failure to possess a general understanding 
of the true principles of moulding, than in their lack of 
machines in sh()[)s. 

There certainly is work that can and will be done in time by 
machines, which has not yet been attempted ; but I think it a 
safe assertion, that skill and experience will be surely required, 
in a greater or less degree, to assist the machinery. 1 do not 
know of a machine in the market, that does not require about 
the same skill to make moulds with it, that is required to 
make them by hand. 

There are plenty of small castings made by machines, that 
most any beginner can make by hand. To say these machines 
are displacing the requirements of skill and experience, is, I 
think, a great over-statement. No one must think that mould- 
ing has not progressed, because our founilries are not full of 
machines. In one sense, our shops are full of machines. They 
do not resemble, I know, what are geneially termed machines ; 
nor are they manufactured by others for foundry use. Our ma- 
chines chiedy consist of well-designed flasks, patterns, mould- 



MOULDING-MACHINES. 241 

boards, and riggings, by which the moulder can often treble the 
production that a rigging, apparently the same in appearance 
to a non-experienced person, would do. 

If one desires to know whether or not there has been any 
progress made in expediting work produced in foundries, let 
them have a talk with any old moulder who has travelled much ; 
and I think they will have their eyes opened a little by his 
recital of the day's work that was thought large when he was 
young, compared to that which some moulders turn out at the 
present time. In many cases, the rigging should have the main 
credit for this extra production. I can now call to mind a 
foundry, not one mile from where the author is penning these 
remarks, in which, comparatively but a few years back, ten or 
twelve sewing-machine legs were a day's work : now, in the 
same shop, one man makes from fifty to sixty legs per day, and 
upon his floor no sign of a moulding-machine is to be seen. 

By the above the author is not throwing cold water upon 
moulding-machines : he simply desires to allay wrong impres- 
sions many have regarding our trade. There is one thing cer- 
tain : machines cannot cause us to work any harder than is now 
generally done. The}' may often lighten our labor, and assist 
us in procuring accurate and successful results. 

Accompanying this chapter is shown a recent and very novel 
invention, which will no doubt interest many readers. The ma- 
chine is for moulding gear-wheels without the use of a pattern. 
Mr. P. L. Simpson of Minneapolis, Minn., is the inventor; 
and, as he is a practical moulder of long experience, he should 
be competent to give the trade a good practical machine. 

Tlie advantages of such a machine as here shown for mould- 
ing all classes of gears — spur, bevel, and mitre, mortised, or 
worm — without the use of a pattern are too well known to need 
comment. The use of such a machine, especially when but 
few castings are desired, must save a large outlay in patterns, 
also enable the use of a gear best suited to the purpose, instead 



lM2 



Moii.niNr; MAcrfiNFS. 



<tf iii.'ikini; a oompnirjiiso. wliidi is often <l<iiic 1<» save tlic jirici* 
{>( |iMltcnis. 

Ill ii>iii;4 this m:i(liiiir. (hr in<*iili|ci' siiiii»lv iidjllsls tlic iii<U-x- 
piii lo a series of lioU's on index cylinder, corres])ondin<^ to 
the niiMiber of leelh ruijuiriHl. The diametcu- is easily adjiislod 




Fig. 91. — Simpson's Gear-Moulding Machine. 



by turning the handle on end of spindle arm, which moves the 
tooth-block carriage to any desired radius ; stops are then 
adjusted so as to preserve the radius while the wheel is being 
made. By a quadrant-slot on tooth-lilock, the latter may be 
turned so as to describe any angle required on the face of the 



MOri.DINfJ MACHINES. 243 

wheel, — bevel, or mitre, as the case maybe. When tectli on 
the tooth-block are rammed up, the moulder moves the spindle- 
arm around until the pin enters the next hole, when the tootli- 
block is again lowered until the stop on the square shaft brings 
it to its proper place. The same operation is repeated until 
the gear is completed. 

Every thing about the machine looks plain, simple, and 
straightforward; no worm wheel or compound gearing al)out it 
to bewilder with their complexity. It is said that any mechanic 
with only limited mechanical ability can easily understand the 
machine, and learn how to work it almost at the first glance. 

The holes on index cylinder are accurately spaced and drilled 
on machines specially made for that purpose. Through this 
agency the gear to be made must leave the sand with special 
accuracy. 



■2\\ r.(jrivAi.r.NT auf.as von v()VRiyr,.r,.\Tvs. 



EQnVALKXT AREAS FOR ROrXD, SQUARE, 
AND RECTAXCiULAR rOlRlXC-C ATKS. 

Tin; moulder is often riMjuired to coiiiu'ct <i:ites of (lilTerciit 
forms, for the conveyance of metiil from the pouiinji-ha.sin 
into the mould. One part may be formed from a round and 
another from a square or rectangular "gate-stick;" and, 
again, two or more round gates may be desired to convey into 
the mould the same amount of meUd per second that one round 
gate would. 

To have the different forms n-heii cleaired contain like areas, 
is something tliat heri'tofore has Ikh-u done by guess-work. 
The etlicieiicy and value of the following tables cannot be better 
told th:in by gueshing jis of old, and then comi)tiring the 
resulting figures with those of the following tables. 

The author would state, that in compihng these tables the 
round gate is tid<en as the "luase ; " and the sizes of the stjuare 
and rectangular gates seen upon same line in second table con- 
tain nearly the same area as that contained in the round gate. 
AVherc more llian one rectangular gate is retpiiri'd, and it is 
desired that they shall contain al»out an e<iunl area to a I'onud 
gate, all lequired is to select the size of round gate, and siil)- 
divide the rectangular gate found to have same area into tlie 
nunil)er of gates desired. 

The lli'st tal)le given has for its l)ase the same diaini'tei-s in 
round gates as appear in the second table : so that, should one 
desire ttvo^ three, or four round gates to have a combined area 
neaily equal 1o one round gate, he has but to deciile upon tlie 
pro[)er area for the large gat<^, and then upon the same line ho 



EQUIVALENT AREAS FOR POURING-GATES. 245 

will find the number of smaller gates equivalent iu area to it ; 
or, should it be desired to have one rectangular or square gate 
have an area equivalent to two^ three, or four round gates, he 
has l)ut to consult the lines upon which the same size of round 
gate is found iu the ''• base " or first column of both tables. 



TABLE FOR EQUIVALENT AREAS IX ROUND GATES. ^ 
One 1^" gate is equal in area to two Ixs"? or three |", or four |" gates. 
One 1|" gate is equal in area to two 1^", or three 1", or four |" gates. 
One 2* gate is equal in area to two l^j", or three Ij^", or four 1" gates. 
One 2\" gate is equal iu area to two If", or three \j^", or four 1^" gates. 
One 2\" gate is equal in area to two If", or three ly^", or four 1^" gates. 
One 2|" gate is equal in area to two lf|", or three If", or four If" gates. 
One 3" gate is equal in area to two 2^", or three If", or four 1|" gates. 
One 3J" gate is equal iu area to two 2^^", or three 1|", or four If" gates. 
One ZY gate is equal in area to two 2|", or three 2", or four If" gates. 
One of" gate is equal in area to two 2,\\", or three 2^", or four 1|" gates. 
One 4" gate is equal in area to two 2^", or three 2i\", or four 2" gates. 
One 4}" gate is equal in area to two 3", or three 21^*^, or four 2\" gates. 
One 4^" gate is equal in area to two 3^^", or three 2f ", or four 2}" gates. 
One 4|" gate is equal in area to two 3|", or three 2f ", or four 2f " gates. 
One 5" gate is equal in area to two 3^^", or three 2|", or four 2\" gates. 

' The fractional parts of an inch, as seen by tables, are not carried out ai'y further 
than .0x5, f*"' tlic reason that the subject does not call for any closer figures. Therefore, 
the figures given will be understood as being " ncjirly " equal in area. As given, the 
sizes can be readily discerned, and are also applicable to measurement by the shop 
|>ocket-rule8 commonly used. 



•2[u 



lUillVAl-l-.M AULAS \()\i I'orUINfJ fiATF.S. 



TABLE FOR K(^ri VALKNT Ai:K\S I\ SC^'AKK AND ItKCT- 
AXGULAK GATES To THAI' OF KUl\\I> <;ArF:s (sec note 
on ]). JJ.")). 



UoiM) 
<}ATE8. 


Sqcarb 
Gates. 


KECTi.NCill-AU 

Gates 
1" Thick. 


Uk.CTA.NOLLAll 

Gates 
14'' Thick. 


IvELTANULLAIt 

Gates 
2" TuicK. 


ICbCTANOlLAK 

Gates 
•2\" Thick. 


r = 


V 










iY' = 


H" 










n" = 


lA" 










ir = 


ii^' = 


1"X 2^" 










If = 


1"X OJ" = 


ij"x ^^" 






■2\" = 


2" = 


l"x 4" = 


U"x 2|i" 






01" = 


•2^" = 


1"X ;j" = 


1 1 " V •>'>'/ 






2J" = 


2t^" = 


1"X 6" = 


li"x 4" = 


2''X.r 




3' = 


2H" = 


l"x 7^15" = 


l^"x 4 J" = 


2"X.'3j''5'' 




S\" = 


2r = 


l"x S^V' = 


U"x .0^ = 


2"X4t%" = 


2rx3^" 


sv = 


w = 


l"x 0|" = 


U"x 6135"= 


2''X4t» = 


iV'xSj" 


3f " = 


3^" = 


1''X11J5" = 


li"x 7f = 


2" X .-;}/' = 


2i"X4-iV'' 


4" = 


3iV' = 


l"xi2-r*5" = 


Ij'-x S|» = 


2''x{;\" = 


2i"x.5" 


4}" = 


31" = 


l"X14f5" = 


irx 9^" = 


2''XTV' = 


2.V'xr,5» 


4\"^ 


4" = 


Vxim" = 


IV'XIOI" = 


1)11 y^o" ^:: 


2\"xf)J" 


41" = 


4A" = 


l"xiT|" = 


n"xn\i"= 


2"x8t'' = 


2i"X7r 


5" '= 


4f." = 


1"X19^" - 


11"xi;3tV"= 


2"xon" = 


2r'x7r 



The term "equivalent" used in this cliapter does not iiniily that two 
or more small gates having a combined area equal to one large gate, all 
having like " head pressure," will deliver the same amount of metal per 
second. The flow of metal is retarded by friction, in ratio to the surface 
area it comes in contact with. Now, although four 2i" round gates are 
of equal area to one 5" round gate, we find the frictional resistance to the 
flow of a like "head pressure" through four 2l" round gates to be double 
that generated in one 5" round gate, simply because the combined circum- 
ferences of four 21" round gates are 3I.41G0 inches, whereas the circum- 
f< ronce of one 5" round gate is 1.5.70SO inches. As gates are generally 
combined under varying complicated conditions, the tables as given can 
be lietter practically used than wIkti' tlu y are lumbered with the question 
of frictional resistance. 



ERRORS IN FIGURING WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS. 247 



ERRORS IN FIGURING WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS. 

Some of our industrial papcre having lately given much 
prominence to the rule of dividing the cubic inches contained in 
a casting by 4 in order to find its weight, the author thought 
it proper to state in this volume his reason for not having given 
this old rule among the tables eoutained in vol. i. The reason 
for not adopting this rule is simply because its use will give a 
result which is too light for practice. 

Before adopting the factors laid down in vol. i., the author 
had given the subject numerous tests, not only in carefully 
noting the weight of specially made castings and different 
grades of iron, but also in having pieces planed up to " fine 
measurements," and carefully* weighed. 

To show the " shortage " of the product obtained by dividing 
the cubic inches contained in a casting by 4, we will take for an 
example a block measuring one cubic foot. In such a block 
there are 1,728 cubic inches : this, divided by 4, gives a weight 
of 432 |X)unds. Now, the actual weight of such a l)lock (when 
fed solid, of coui-sc), made from ordinary gray iron, is about 
450 pounds. So we find, by figuring with the divisor 4, a 
shortage in weight of 18 pounds for ever}- 450 pounds ; or, for 
every 100 pounds, a shortage of 4 pounds. 

The above shortage is certainly quite a serious item in 
figuring for heav}- castings. For example, take a casting 
weighing 10 tons: we find the divisor 4 would give a shortage 
of yOO i)ounds. 

The author's main reason for here referring to this old rule 
is simply to show its error, and prevent any one from being 
deceived thereby. The factors, as laid down for figuring the 
weights of castings in vol. i., will, if followed, be found to 
give answers as near accurate as it is practical to obtain. 



CONTRIBUTED CIIAPTEIIS. 



TilF. folloAvitip; fivo rhaptoi's all oiiLrinally appcanMl in " The 
AiiKTicaii Machinist ; " with the exception of Mv. ^lallett's, 
which appeared in '^ Iron Trade Heview and Western Machin- 
ist " of C'U'vclaiid, (). The anthor's attention wxs attiacli-d to 
those aiticles Ity their novelty and piactical ideas, and. think- 
ing they would be of much value to the readers of this book, 
he dccidi'd to insert them ; and would here tender his thanks to 
the resiK>ctive writers, especially to Messrs. Masters and Ilairi- 
sou for their kind dedication to him. 



MELTING SMALL QUANTITIES OF IRON. 

Bv Ruhert E. Masters, CoLiMnvs, Ga. 

The following plan for melting one hundred to throe hundred 
pounds of iron in a common ladle, I respectfully dedicate to 
Thomas D. West (as one of the odd methods of melting iron) 
for his second volume of "American Foundry Practice." I 
imagine I can see a smile illuminating the features of the 
mouldei's in some of the finely ctpiipped foundries whore they 
melt from twenty to fifty tons of iron per day, at the idea of 
melting a coujjle of hundred pounds ; still there are hundrcils 
of suKill shops where the knowledge of a method for doing so 
would be a source of eonsideral)le profit, besides sometimes 
retaining a customer. For instance, ]Mr. E has a small sh(tp, 
nud only casts once or twice a week : a short distiincc from 
him (perhaps in the same town), 1) & C'o. ha\e a large shop, 
and cast every day. E has just taken off a heat, and will not 
248 



MELTING SMALL QUANTITIES OF IRON. 



249 



cast again for several days, when in walks a customer with a 
broken-down job that will require from a hundred to two hun- 




Fig. 92. 

dred and fifty pounds of iron to ix)ur off, and he must have it 
immediately. E doesn't want to lose the job, or run the risk 



li."»0 MAKi.\(; A (Tia i;i) nn: i iiom a siKAKiiir i-aiikkn. 

of losiiiiT ;i cnstonuT. Now for tin- plan for doini; tlic joli, and 
iflainiuLX tin- cnslonicr : 'I'aki' a coinnion tlin'o-hiintlivd |ioini(l 
lac lit' J. l'"i^. '.12, (laulicd in tlic ordiiiaiv w ay. and •• II ic it ii|i " 
until yon iiavt- a solid coke or coal liiv. Then take a plain 
cylinder li. made of lip;lit l)oil('r-iroi), 'U'>" loni^, and of tin- ri<|lit 
diameter to lit the top of ladle. This cylinder slionld have a 
2" hole at one end for tnyeie i)ipe, and should he danlxd np 
same as a ladle, an<l drii-il ready for u.se. Place tlu- cyrnnler 
top of ladle, daub up around the j<jint, and aild fuel until yon 
have a good bed 0" or 7" above tuyeres. Put on such iron a.s 
yon wish to use, and as much as you need to pour off the piece. 
Nearly all small foundries have tuyere pipes that can be de- 
tached from cupola \vithout much trouble, and used for bla.st 
by adding a small piece of i)ipe to fit tuyere hole in cylinder. 
After the iron is down, lift olT stack, and pour as usual. Ily 
this method a ladle holding three hundred pounds cau be melted 
full of iiood hot iron in a short tune. 



MAKING A CURVED PIPE FPvO.M A STPvAIGIIT 
PATTKRX. 

Bv Olin Scott, Bknmn'oton, Vt. 
A siiOKT time since, a customer called on me for a pieci' of 
ca.st-iion pipe to make a curve of alxait tlmty degrees in a pipe 
about three feet in diameter. He wanted it forthwith for a 
repair job. Having no such pattern, nor forms for sweei)ing 
such a mould, I made tin- piece in a creditable manner by the 
jneans shown in tlu' acconipanying ski't<-h. First I got a pat- 
tern for a draw-pulley liin, which was about ^" thick, fi" wide, 
and 36" diameter, having but little draught. Around this pul- 
ley-rim I fitted a set of cores, a section of which is shown at 
e. lu the under side of these cores was a recess, to form the 



MAKING A CURVED PIPE FROM A STRAIGHT PATTERN. 251 

bottom flanges of the pipe. I also had a piece of a circular 
flange pattern fitted to the outside of the rim i)attern, which 
piece of flange pattern was about one-sixth of a circle, and 
was like the required pipe flange. I was then ready to make 
the mould, which was done by excavating in the ground floor 
deep enough for the casting, — say about four feet, — and then 
ramming and grading a true surface at au angle as shown by 




Groutid 



Fig. 93. 

the line a b. This surface was made true in a manner similar 
to tiiat often employed for making true beds in pits, by l)edding 
a turned iron pulley-rim in the sand, and using a straight-edge 
over the edge of the pulley rim, and, after the surface was 
finished, drawing out the puUe}' pattern, and filling the hole 
left by it. 

After truing the surface ab, the 3G" pulley pattern was laid 



'J.)i: MoiLDiNi; rii'i;s on i.nd in (;Ki;r.N sand. 

down, ai)(l tin* cores e, c set around it, and sand then rammed 
hard, both otil-sicU- and inside the imMey-rim, nearly h'vel 
willi tlie top. Then several In.les were made willi :i har, and 
some stroiij; slakes .s, .s, s, diiven xwU) them. A computation 
showed the pipe would be altont '.Y6" lonji (u the slu^it side, 
and about oO" on the long side. The pulley-rim palt^-rn was 
tin'u drawn up H" on the side ac^ and 1 ' on the side db, 
when more sand wa.s rammed inside and outside, and the pat- 
tern a<^ain drawn up in the same wa}' a.s before, i.e., 1^" on 
the long side, and 1" on the shcit side. This operation was 
repeated until the pattern was raised to the line c(/, when the 
surface d was Icvellel off to the tup edge of the pattern, and 
the cope staked in position and rammed ni). The cope wius 
then UUvcn off, and the sand cut out around the outside of 
pattern so as to l)ed the section of flange iiattein, and ram it 
level with top of pattern : then the flange section wa.s moved 
along and rammed again until the flange mould w:us cairied 
entirely around the pulley pattern. The pulley i)attern was 
then drawn, the cope put on, and runner built, and it was 
ready for the iron. A thorough venting of the cores e, e, was 
secured by a vent rod rannned in the sand over each core, and a 
vent wire was thoroughly use<l in every direction from the start- 
ing place of the lower end of the mould toward the joint. 

Although the pattern was nearly a straight cylinder, the 
marks of the pattern when it was di'awu were scarcely per- 
ceptible upon tlie casting. 



MOULDIXG PIPi:S OX END IN GREEN SAND. 

r.v James iMallf.tt, Clevelanp, O. 

A i"KW years ago, a firm in this city received an order for 
several hundred feet of cast-irou pipe to be used for ventilating 



MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GREEN SAND. 



253 



purposes. The pipe was to be 20" in diameter, |" thick, and 
made in sections varying from three feet six indies to seven 
feet. jVIr. P. L. Simpson, who had charge of the sliop, con- 
ceived tlie idea of moulding the pipe on end ; for this purpose 




Fig. 95. 

an ordinary pulley-ring, of the size and thickness required, was 
selected for a pattern. A hole was dug in tlie floor large 
enough to enable the moulder to work on the outside of the 
pattern when rammiug-up ; a substantial wood stake was driven 



y 



254 MOTLDINU rU'K.S ON KM) IN (i It F.I.N SAND. 

firmly into the oontro of tlio hole ; .'i lovfl ImmI forme*! :ii-onii<I it, 
ii|Miii wliicli wi'ic |iI:ic»mI iIic con-s lli.it f(Hiiic<| llic llaiiiit- <ir 
Mickcl, ;is llic rii.si' iiiltilit lie. ;it tlic Itottolii cml of tlic l>i|K', 
'I'lu' li'iiylli of till' Jiipc w.Ms llitii iii:iii;('(l on tlic stalvc :ii>o\c, 
tlio pattei'M |>I:icim1 upon tlic coics, f( iir ronnd stick.s placi'tl 
around the slukf to help luing olT tin; vt-nt oC tin- coif. an<l 
sand ranimcd liiinly inside and oiitside oC the rinLj to tlu; top; 
then a \-cnt-\vire \v;us used fre<'ly, the linu; and the sticks were 
drawn up ahont live inches, and the ianiinin<i continued to the 
t^)p as before ; the vent-wire wa.s aj^ain used inside and out.side 
of the ringi;, after which it and the four vent-sticks were drawn 
another live inches. 

This prtHVss was continued until tiio mould was as louu a? 
required; the pattern was K'velli'd each tinu' it w;us drawn ; the 
sticks were also diawn e:u'h lime so a.s not to extend below the 
pattern and so cndanirei' the core. Some rods were placed at 
intervals in the core when rainniiuir, in order to streni:llicn and 
secuH' it. When the pattein had bet'U drawn to the re(|iiired 
lieiiiht, a joint was made around it on which to set the coveiin;^ 
cores: the pattern wjus tlien (hawn about six or seven inches 
hifjher, and the core rammed up so much lii!j,her than the <tut- 
side : the pattern and vent sticks wimv then drawn out. and 
the covering cores, with gates tiled in them, were placed on the 
joint against the body-core ; the pouring-gate on top wa.s then 
made ui), and the mould was ready to cast. 

When there was a flange on the toi) end. we formed it some- 
times by means of a segment worked around tlu' top of tlu' 
pattern l>efort' (hawing it out; Imt. in most cases, we used 
cores like those shown in Fig. Of), and marked c and c res|)ec- 
tively, as they could be adajited to either end by simply revers- 
ing their position. They were niadi' in segments one-sixth of 
the total circumference I'equired, that size being found the most 
convenient. When sockets were cast on any of the pipes, the 
cores to form them were made on the same general principle, 
and, for (.»bvious reasons, i)laced at the bottom of the mould. 



MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GREEN SAND. 255 

The advantajxos attondino; this iiietliod of moulding thin pipes 
nre too api>ait'nt to any om- :ic(inainted vvitli the trade to require 
more th:in a passing notice. Ortliiiarih', by the old method, 
consideral)le expense and delay would Ije incurred in making a 
pattern and core-box, not to mention the provision of large and 
substantial tlasks in which to do the moulding subsequently. 
By careful ramming, a mould made in this way is safer than l)y 
the horizontal pltin. as tliere is no danger of a run-out, of hav- 
ing the core rise or sink, or of '"cold-shut" if the iron be a 
little dull. 

By this plan, also, two lengths of pipe can be made in tiie 
time taken to mould one V)y the old method, and the moulds 
take up less room. Of course, the moulds cannot be lilaekcd 
and sleeked ; Init by using fine sand, and ramming regulaily, a 
good surface may be obtained, if desired. In this case, the 
castings were not required to i>e smooth : so long as they were 
light and solid, they answered the purpose. 

A good plan to form the [jouring-gate is to take a puUej'- 
ling about five inches larger than the ring used for the i)attern, 
and when the covering cores, with the gates filed in them, ai-e 
in place, to put the larger ring on them, and make up the sand 
ail around the outside as high as required ; then cut awa}' two 
places in which to pour the iron from the bull ladles, draw out 
the ring, and the mould is ready to pour. This kind of gate 
has the advantage of I>eing quickly made, besides being cleaner 
and more easily choked than a gate cut out w^ith a trowel as 
ordinarily. This plan of moulding thin pipes has been adopted 
by other firms ; but to many, the idea will be perfectl}' new. 
Of course, the deeper the pattern is, the better, as there is less 
danger of ramming the mould in or the core out than with a 
shallow pattern ; besides, the pattern can be drawn more each 
time than the other, and leave a more even surface both inside 
and out. 

Fig. 94 represents a plan of the mould when ready to cast ; 



2.')G TIIUKK WAYS OF MAKING AN AIR VKSSKI,. 

Fii;. !»."» ;i ciiitiMl vcitifril section of the s;iiiif. Winn tlic pi|H'S 
arc to lir l<iii|j;. il is \>r>\ to ii>c xiiiir loiinil iron ll.i>ks or linf.rs 
in wliicli to r:ini up tin- lower end of the mould, as tin- strain is 
vcrv ^r»'at, and will canse the ciusting to Ik' imicL JK-aviiT tluiii 
riMiuired unless properly secured. 



THREE WAYS OK MAKING AX AIIi-VESSEL. 

Bv Rop.KRT Watson, Clevelaxp, O. 

In making a easting like the one shown in the engraving, 
three things suggest themselves to the moulder : Fii-st, to make 
it; second, to make it well ; and, third, to make it at the least 
expense, and at the same time have a good j(jl) of it. There 
arc tlirec plans represented in the engraving for making this 
air-eliamlu'r ; wliich, it may be remaiked, is of a size not often 
reciuired, the dimensions being 00" x 48" and 2" thick. The 
moulder wlio made this particular casting made it in loam, bj' 
the fii'st plan represented. This is a plan considered by some 
old-fashioned, out of date ; while others maintain it is the safest 
plan, although a rather slow one. I will explain the three 
plans, and leave it for the reader to judge which is the best. 

In making this casting by the " first plan," we build up to 
A and D, and after loaming and sweeping smooth it is neces- 
sary to wait till the loam is stilT enough to 1)ear the wi'ight of 
tlic core. liy drying it with a fire-basket, a little time c:fn l»c 
saved. Then it is l)lacked with a mixture of charcoal-blacking 
and water, for the purpose of making it part clean. The 
sweep is then changed so as to sweep the required thickness, 
which, in smaller castings, is often done with green sand 
dampened with clay water; ])Ut I doultt if this material would 
be strouii enouiili to sustain a core uf this size. To be ou the 



THREE WAYS OF MAKING AN AIR-VESSEL. 



257 



safe side, it is hotter in this case to use loam and hrick splinters, 
and to thoroughly dry with the fire-basket. Then a coat of 




parting blacking is put on, and it will part cleaner if a coat 
of parting-sand is sprinkled on top of it. 



2r)S THUKK WAYS OF MAKINfi AN AIU VKSSF.L. 

'I'd luiiM the core, :i |)l:ilc willi prickers <»n it is iisod to form 
the liuttoiii, MS sliowii ;il A'. Thciv arc «lilTi'rciit ways of Itcd- 
(liiili tills plate. I have seen tlieiii heilded cold in a IkmIv of 
loam, Imt this re(jtiii'cs a long time to diy hard cnouiih to lift 
clean when the eorc is taken out of its Ix-d. A Wetter plan is 
to lu'at the plate, and have hoU'S in it in which to pack pieces 
of l)ricks an<l loam np level with the plate. I think a better 
wa}' still would be to tnin the plate bottom upwards, and loosely 
pack in bricks with buildingdoara, freely nsingj fine coke, up to 
within 1" or 1^" of the points of the prickers, then fill up with 
loam in a rough state. "When dry and ready for use, it is neces- 
sary to scratch the surface of the loam with a wire-ljrush, and 
rub on a little soft loam ; then lower it on a loam bed, say from 
^" to I" thick. The remainder of the core can then be built 
with confidence in the final result. A sweep has to l)e put on 
the spindle, and used to form the upper portion of the core, 
from th(> joint ^1 and B; space must be allowed in the centre 
for the lifting and blocking gear, as shown at //. After loam- 
ing and sweeping this part of the core, the sweep must be 
changed for another to make the proper thickness. 

I have seen the same operations gone through with as were 
with the bottom, — (drying the core, putting on parting-blacking, 
loam, brick splinters, etc. ; but all this in the case of the core 
is quite unnecessary. Instead of loam for the thickness, use 
green sand dampened slightly with clay water. Press this on 
firmly with the hands, and sleek a little with the trowel after 
the sweep has properly shaped it ; no parting-blacking is re- 
quired. Before sleeking it, if parting-sand is sprinkled on, it 
will assist in getting a clean [)arting. 

You can now start without delay to Imild up against it to 
form the outside, after putting on the parting-ring. "When at 
the top, if 3'ou have no sweep, it is necessary to have a ring 
to form the llange : the job is then so far complete. Aftt-r 
marking in several places, great care is required to part this olT, 



TTTF.EE WATS OF MAKING AN AITl-VESRF.L. 259 

as tlic mould is green and easily damaged. This part should 
be dressed and blackened first, as it must be dried ; when this 
is drying, the upper half of the core can be dressed and black- 
ened, then put the cope part back in place. 

The loamed top-plate A" is placed on the top for the purpose 
of lifting the core out of its bod. I have seen two bolts used 
for lifting the core, the bolts being screwed tight on the top of 
the plate. The position of these bolts is shown at the right 
of //. This plan was not satisfactory^, and far from being safe, 
as it is imj)ossible to screw the bolts so as to have equal strain 
on them : therefore the core is liable to move, when free from 
its bed, by the effort to come to an equilibrium. If it does 
move, there is a poor chance of adjusting it with two bolts. 
A better way would be to use three bolts, then it can readily 
be adjusted. By having a strong piece of iron alongside each 
bolt, extending from the core-plate and tightly wedged, the 
bolts could be tightened to suit, with confidence that the core 
will not move from its proper place. This is shown to the left 
of ^. 

If the top-plate is not strong enough, it would be a good plan 
to use a three-legged cross, as represented at L. This, by bear- 
ing on the points of the legs as well as at the centre, would 
strengthen the plate. 

Two waj's of making joints are shown at A and B. Some 
make a bevelled joint, as at 13, the bevelled part serving as a 
guide in lowering. This is generally satisfactory when there 
is a good foundation. There is at 5 a chance of getting a iX)or 
flat joint from the prickers not lifting the loam ; also, when 
closing, there is danger of crushing the bevel part, if not closed 
entirely fair, which will spoil or disfigure the casting. The 
level joint at A is far better. This is made with two plates, 
which makes the joint iron and iron. It can be guided together 
by outside marks. A better way of guiding would be to have 
pins, as shown at X. To make these plates, have a bed with 



■2r»0 TIIUKI', WAYS OF MAKIXr; AN AIK VI.SSKl,. 

llic size siiid form inaikcfl on it, and Iiiiili ciioiij^di to oast two 
jilatrs. Urfoii! (.-astiiiLj tlic liisl |ilalc, si't tin- ^iiidopiiis so the 
l)lalo will liavc a i^ood hold of tliiiii : the mipcr portions of 
these pins shonld i)e (jih-d, and a good coat of parting-sand put 
on them. After the lirst plate is east, put on ii go<xl coat of 
parting-sand t«> prevent the phites uniting. There can be three 
or lour lugs cast on the upi>er plate, as shown at -I, for the 
purpose of wedging ciiapU-ts. 

In this plan, tlu ii! are slunvn three ways of ruiniing the cast- 
ing, as at *!)', Y, and 11'. The runner at S is almost sure to cut 
and scab the core and mould. The runner at F is not so l)ad, 
but is open in a less degree to the same objection. I can w ith 
confidence recommend the runner W. 

Looking at the "second plan" in tlio engraving, the core 
and the mould are made separate. The bottom of the core is 
formed with a sweep iV. "When this is dry and turned ovi-r, it 
is laid on a bed prepared for it; care being taken to have the 
plate level, and placed centrally with the sweep. To insure 
its proper location, a nick may be made in the sweep that forms 
the bottom, to correspond with the top sweep, as shown at 
2, 2, 2. 

For supj^orting the mould, a plate shonld be built in its npper 
portion to bolt to the bottom plate, as shown at 4. In the 
"third plan," the mould is made in three parts; the bottom 
when finished is divided into two sections, one of which is 
shown at R. The four lugs are to clamp the sections together 
b}'. Tlie top part can be made I)}' having a plate with prickci-s 
on it, OS shown at M. For closing by, the sweep siiould be 
made to make an outside mark to correspond with the under 
part, as shown at XX. 

Although the third plan seems to be the easiest and simplest, 
it is seldom adopted, for the reason that the bottom being the 
weakest part, or the part most likely to give way from over- 
pressure, it is essential to [)iovide for its being sound and solid ; 



A METHOD OF MOULDING GEAR WHEELS. 261 

and the only way to do tins is by casting the bottom down as 
shown ia the first and second plans. 



A METHOD OF MOULDING GEAR WHEELS. 

Br "William H. Harrison, Braintree, Mass. 

As a sort of supplement to the most excellent series of 
articles which JNIr. West has been writing on the subjects of 
Moulding and Casting, I venture to present the following 
method of moulding heavy gear wheels, which I believe was 
original with myself, and which I have found exceedingly use- 
ful in a great many instances. It is really a rough substitute 
for a moulding-machine, and like a moulding-machine possesses 
the merit of making wheels which are tolerable approximations 
to truth. The method of making wheels by using short cores 
on which the teeth are moulded, and spacing them around in a 
pit, is one not to be tolerated ; for, although a thing may be 
made tolerably satisfactory to the moulder, the application of 
the machinist's calipers will show that the teeth and spaces 
var^' in thickness from the difficulty in setting the cores, while 
the cores themselves change their shape from the shape of the 
core-box in handling and drying. 

There are mill-owners who imagine they have accomplished 
a good work when they insist upon having the gears turned, 
thus truing the points of the teeth ; forgetting that the points 
of the teeth, even in the most perfect work, are not intended 
to touch any thing. It is, however, a somewhat melancholy 
sight to the man who bears the expense, to observe one of the 
old-fashioned boring-mills, or lathes of light weight, nibbling 
off a little cut, and the machine jumping from tooth to tooth, 
as though trying to make time between the cuts. 



2(;2 



A MKTIIOI) OK Mon.DINf; (UlAU WllKKI^S. 



Fi^. '.17 n proscnts :i section llir()ii<;h the s.-iiid of tlic foiimlry 
floor. A A is :i vi'iticul sj)iiulU', tapi'iid :it tlit- lower end, 
ami fitted t(j a tapered hole in the 1)a.se i)late. C is a eastiiiji, 
having l)()ri-d holi-s earefiilly fitted, so as to slide frei-ly upon 
tbo spindle. A boanl is bolted to C, whieli levels the lluor ou 




Fig. 97. 

the line a ?>, and leaves the mound c, if required, to form the 
boss. The cope is then placed, and rammed up as usual with 
a piece of tubing or gas-pipe slipped over the spindle to allow 
the cope to be lifted without disturbing the saml. The cope 
bein<' lifted and swung to one side, another board is used, 



A METHOD OF MAKING GEAR WHEELS. 2G3 

which sweeps a pit in the green sand of the floor to the shape 
dcfg. The part / is for the boss at the lower side, and gr 
is the core print. The casting C is now hfted from tlie spindle, 
and the index plate D D placed and secnred b}' the set screw. 
This index plate is smoothly turned, and while in the lathe a 
number of circles are struck with a fine-pointed tool. These 
circles should be graduated, and the holes drilled on a gear- 
cutter, or, as the English say, a " dividing-engine ;" but in my 
case the dividing engine was a sharp-eyed apprentice, armed 
with a pair of compasses, a hammer, and a centre punch, in 
preference to the pattern-maker with his glasses and lead-pencil. 

The board F, having the pattern G attached, is now bolted 
to the casting C, and slipped down upon the spindle, and the 
point / adjusted so as to drop into the centre punch marks 
t, I, I, etc., and allow the lower end of the pattern to come 
down upon the bottom of the pit on the level c. The green 
sand forming the space between two teeth is then rammed, and 
the boai'd //, Fig. 98, laid on with a ten-pound weight on top 
of the teeth to hold the sand down, when the pattern is being 
drawn, after which the arm is shifted to the next hole in the 
index plate. It is well to give this pattern some draught ; not 
to make it lift easier, but because the straining of the lower 
part of the casting, particularly when the face of the gear is 
wide, tends to make that part larger. 

It is also well not to allow too much for contraction ; in case 
of these heav}' wheels, ■^" per foot I have found ample. 

After the teeth are formed, the spindle and attachments may 
be removed, of course leaving the plate B in the sand until 
after the casting is made. The arm cores and centre core may 
be placed in the ordinary manner, being made of dry sand ; or 
in some cases where the gear is large, and the arms plain, the 
core box may be laid in the mould, and rammed up with green 
sand, in the exact location where it is required to be. 

The cope may now be put in place, and weighted as usual in 



2r,4 



A Mi:riini) ok makinc; f;i;Aii wiikkls. 



work of tliis clianu-ttT. It will !»(» observed that in Fig. 98 the 
teeth are siiowii of tlie iiivoiiite f(»nii, which 1 adopted some 
years ago as liie best form for roiigii wheels. They certainly 




Fig. 98. 



are the strongest as to form, theorclioall}' ; and for smooth 
running, some of these wheels made with this rough apparatus 
as coarse as 1\" pitch on the pitch circle, I have never seen 
equalled by any gears moulded from a pattern. 



CUPOLAS AND MELTING IRON. 



SMALL CUPOLAS. 

"When trade is brisk, nearly all machinery shops cast every 
day ; when dull, man}' are more likely to cast once a week. 
Whether trade is dull or brisk, castings are wanted in a hurry ; 
often, the duller the trade, the greater the hurry. Some want 
them even before they are ordered : they think a casting 
should be had the same as a piece of forging or carpenter- 
work. 

Waiting for a small casting in dull times, is often caused 
through waiting for a decreased force to get up enough work to 
pay for running off a heat. The expense of running off light 
heats in some shoi)s is very heavy, the cost being regulated by 
the size of cupola : the smaller the cupola, the less the ex- 
pense. 

Small cupolas are not only good for running light heats, but 
are valuable for testing our modern brands of pig-iron. Pig- 
iron is something of a mystery, and to find its qualities it gen- 
erally requn-es to be worked. To melt a sample of pig-iron in 
a large cupola, is not always practicable, from the fact that 
castings are made of mixtures ; and, even would circumstances 
allow the first charge to be all of one brand of pig, there is 
little assurance of its being entirely free of upper mixtures. 
With a small cupola, and thirt}' to fifty cents' worth of fuel, 
three or four hundred-weight of pig can be melted, loith an 
assurance of the casting being all the jn'oduct of that special x)ig- 

Small cupolas are often as useful in large shops as in small 
ones. In the whole country, there might be found a dozen large 
shops having small cupolas, and out of the dozen there might 

205 



2f>t> SMAI.I- (TPOLAS. 

1)0 four that linvc Ijocn useil over a dozen limes. It is ver}' 
easy to Imild small eiqiolas, but sonielhing of a job to success- 
fully run them. Notwithstaiidiug, the princiijle of melting is 
the sauie in a small cupola as in a huge one. 

For mauii)ulation in handling, there is not the room in small 
cupolas that there is in large ones; and on this account the 
small cupola has not been very successfully used. 

There are two styles of small cupolas in use. The first is 
upon the same plan as the common round, straight cupola ; and 
the second is made so as to be turned upside down, for con- 
venience in cleansing and dumping. Knowing the disadvan- 
tages attending the successful running of small cupolas, 
ranging from 12" to IS", I have designed, as shown, an original 
plan that I think will fully meet the requirements. 

The cupola here shown will occupy a space about four feet 
square. The working portion is hung by two cast-iron trun- 
nions, having a wrought-irou ly pin cast in each. The trun- 
nions work in a sliding rest, one of which, a face view, is seen 
at jB -4, in back view of cupola (Fig. 99). 

An end view of the slides is shown in the side view. The 
plan of the slides is seen in small cut at the top. Shown in 
back and side views, inider the sliding rests, are friction wheels. 
These slides are held in place by the standards SaS, shown 
bolted to the columns. By a slight push, the workmg-portion 
of cupola can be brought out from below the upi^er portion 
or stack. A pin inserted tlirough P to K prevents any further 
sliding of the rests. After this the steadying bars ////, shown 
in the plan as well as in back view, are removed. The cupola 
can now be turned to a horizontal position. To prevent the 
slides from running out of their roller bearings when mo^ing 
the cupola, the slides A B should have a projection on each 
end, as seen below the end at K. As the working-portion of 
the cupola is only four feet long, by the means of the drop 
bottom, a man can reach and see all parts of the inside, there- 




I-L- 



IT-^. 



Fig. 99. 



SMALL CUPOLAS. 267 

by giving him a good opportunity to thoronghly pick out and 
cleanly daub it up. This is almost an impossibility iu the in- 
stance of mauy small cupolas. AYith this jjcirt of the zvorJCy 
rightly and handily 2'>erfonned, lies the main secret of successful 
melling in small cupolas. 

In picking out and daubing up small cupolas, care and clean- 
liness micst be exercised. The lining should be kept as smooth 
and even as possible : any roughness has a tendency to make 
the charges hang up. It is an easy matter for iron to become 
wedged in such small cupolas. The daubing would better 
stand a long heat if it were dried, all cracks filled, and then 
given a coat of good blacking, thereby making it as smooth 
and clean as the linings of ladles ; but for ordinary heats this 
extra work is not necessary. 

Not oul^- is it not essential that the cupola should be clean, 
but the iron and fuel should be clean as well. Dirt creates 
slag, and slag could soon bung up any cupola. The slag-hole, 
if properly managed, greatly mitigates the disastrous effect of 
slag. Dirt in any form is detrimental to successful melting. 
With large cupolas one may be somewhat careless and unclean, 
but with small ones attention to these points must be given. 

The thickness of lining for small cupola can range from 1|-" 
up to 4^". The 1^" lining is obtained by daubing the shell with 
three-fourths of good fire-clay mixed with one-fourth of sharp 
sand. To mix them well, they should be boiled together in a 
kettle. Common clay could be used, but in the end the fire- 
clay would be cheapest. A 2^" or 4|" lining is made with fire- 
brick. For small cupolas, intended for frequent use, the 2^" 
thickness of lining is about as thin as should be put in. For 
daily use the 4^" lining would be preferable, as this thickness 
would last longer than a thinner one. To use a 4|^" linnig to 
make the 12''' cupola, the shell of cupola would, of course, 
require to be larger than shown. 

The working-portion of cupola shown has, in the length of 



208 fiMAI.I- riTOLAS. 

four feet, a tapor of 2". This is a pciiiit I am nware is not 
iiiuch practised, wiiidi is aiiotlK-r reason fur ill workings. 
t^oKill cit])ukis are heifer for liaviiuj a tajjer, as it assists in jtre- 
ventiiKj the stock from becoming wedrjod or hnng up. 

In constructing the shell for small cnpolas, there arc several 
ways in which it may l)c clone. One is to make it out of all 
l)()ik'r-iron ; and another, by placing cast-iron rings on top of 
each other, tying them together witli l)olts. A third plan is 
to l)ind vertically placed cast-iron slabs or staves with wronght- 
iron rings; and a fourth, to make a square shell by bolting 
together cast-iron plates. The fifth, a '^ crank's " plan, is to 
line up a flour-barrel. 

In the cupola shown, the bottom is made of cast-iron ^" thick. 
From the tuyeres up, boiler-iron is used. The slides A B arc 
of wrought-iron, and the platform plate of cast-iron. The 
plan of tuyeres shown is one that ■u'ill evenly distnbute the 
blast. At 1, 2, 3, and 4, are peep barring-holes, which may 
be plugged, as shown, with wooden stoppers, or they can be 
closed with swinging slides. Numbere 6 and 7 are nozzles to 
attach leather, rubber, or sheet^iron blast-pipe to. The pipes 
must be made adjustable, so as to allow the cupola to lie 
removed. The tuyere boxes, seen at 72 72 in back view of 
cupola, are independent of the outer shell, and are set in when 
lining up. These tuyeres, to work well m the three sizes men- 
tioned, should have an area of from twenty to twcntj'-five per 
cent of that contained in the cupola. P'or the cupola shown, 
use four tuyeres l^"x4". The milder, with proper volume, 
the blast can be admitted into small cupolas, the longer can 
they be made to run ; and this is especially so where all coke is 
the fuel used. 

The construction of the tuyeres as shown is. of coui-se, 
more expensive than were nothing but two round tuyeres used. 
Some small cupolas have the blast thus directly admitted. It 
is a cheap and ready plan ; but I think tlie plan given is the 



SMATJ, CUPOLAS. 269 

best, as admitting the air as shown breaks its direct force, and 
admits it in a much more even and a milder manner, so that 
it does not have such a bunging effect as it does when passing 
directly from the blast-pipe into the cupola. The blast press- 
ure for cupolas ranging from 12" up to 18", using all coke 
for fuel, should be from two up to four ounces ; with coal and 
coke, four to six ounces ; using all coal, from five to seven 
ounces. 

The stacks for small cupolas need not be continuous, as for 
large ones. After a foot or two above the top of clmrgmg 
door, they may be led into the stack of a larger cupola, or into 
a chimney. 

Between the cupola cuts, is shown the mauner of charging. 
In charging the working-portion of the cupola, it would be 
better to have it slide out to come iu under the platform hole 
X. This would give a good chance to properly and conven- 
iently charge. After charging, it can be pushed back, locked, 
and the portion of cupola above platform charged. The half- 
inch of space between the platform and underneath portion of 
the cupola could be stopped up with cla3% to prevent the blaze 
from coming out. The platfonn as seen is but a plain plate. 
As shown it would be too weak to carry much of a load, and 
also there is nothing to stop stock from rolling off. To meet 
both those requirements, it would be a good plan to have a nb 
say l^"x6" cast all around the plate; and where it crosses 
the hole X it could be given an arch shnpe, so as -to allow the 
cupola to turn over. Still more to strengthen it at X, there 
might be a complete ring cast on the plate, just large enough 
for the cupola to fill. If this were not thought sufficient, still 
another rib could be cast on the plate on its under side, below 
the place where the pig pile is seen ; and to add support, which 
might be needed should a very heavy stack be used, the plate 
could be cast thicker than shown, and brackets carried from 
the columns up to it. 



270 SMAT.T, rrroi,AS. 

Tlu* licd's wcinflit of fuel, pivcii in cut. i'^ iiifondon to \>\i\co 
tlu' hod :ilK)iit lo" aliovt' tlic U>\> of tiivti'*'- W'itli trials made! 
of coal and coke in the shop, the <iiveii weights would bring it 
ahont as shown. As J)ut few ciipohis arc exactly alike in meas- 
urement, or fuels of the same specific gravity, instead of giving 
the hed weight, it would be more relial)le to state the height 
which the U)[) of bed should be above the tuyere. For a heat 
of WO pounds, having all coal in bed, it should be 12" above 
tuvere. Above IHK) pounds, add fniui I" to '■'>" to licighl i»f 
bed. If all coke is used, have bed 1h" above tuyeies ; and for 
a heat of 1,000 pounds or over, add from 2" to 0" to height. 
L'sing all coke Ix'twecn charges, continue as shown. Should 
all coal be used, donljlc the weight of fuel and iron in charging, 
which would be 20 pounds of fuel instead of 10, and 250 
pounds instead of 125 of iron. The fuel should be small size, 
and the pigs broken into four or five pieces, and scrap in like 
proportion. 

The charges for a 15" cupola could be made as follows : On 
a coal bed charge 350 pounds of iron, after which, with coke 
for fuel, have charges, 17 pounds of coke and 200 pounds of 
iron. With all coal, double the charges. 

The charges for 18" cupola : on coal bod, 500 pounds of 
iron ; coke between charges of 300 pounds of iron, 25 pounds. 
For coal charges, double those above. If, in any of the three 
sizes, coke is used in place of conl for the bed, then make the 
first charge of iron no heavier than those given for tlio upper 
charges. Should the iron come too dull for very light castings, 
add to height of bed from 2" to G", and between charges two, 
four, to six pounds of fuel. By using coal for the bed, the 
cupola will molt more iron than if coke is used, as the -coal will 
stiind the effects of the blast better than coke. By slagging the 
cupola, it can often be made to melt near as much again iron 
as where no attention is paid to slagging out. The capacity of 
a 12" cupola, when slagged out, is about 1,500 pounds; that 



SMALL CUrOLAS. 271 

of a 15" cnp<^la, 2.000 ; nud au 18" cupola, 2,500 pounds. 
With exc'olk'ut mauagemout the above figures might be ex- 
ceeded. I would here state, that, although I have shown the 
cut of a 12" cupola, for daily practical working I would not 
recommend the use of one less than 15". 

The reason for placing the few pounds of coke below the 
coal shown in the bed is more for the purpose of assisting in 
kindling the coal, than for saving expense. Coal is harder to 
kindle than coke, and in small cupolas the ditliculty is greater 
than in larger ones. 

The construction shown is in principle applicable to any of 
the three sizes mentioned. For a 15" cupola, the tuyeres should 
be increased from 4"x 1-J", to 3^"x3|", and for an 18" cupola 
4"x4". Also for a 15" or 18" cupola, the slide bars and plat- 



^ 




form should be stronger than shown for the 12" cupola. The 
tuyeres could be 4" lower, were all coal used ; but for coke 
the height given is required. A cheaper cupola could be con- 
structed, but for cheapness in the end I think the one here 
represented would be satisfactory. 

An idea which it might be well to express for one who was 
willing to forego the convenience allowed by having the cupola 
slide out under X to be charged up, is simply to dispense with 
this arrangement, and, in order to turn the cupola over and 
back, to let a part of the body — which is here shown to be 
above the platform — project below sufficiently to be cut so as 
to form a slanting joint, instead of being parallel as now shown. 



2t2 SMAl.I, (II'OLAS. 

If this were dono, llio Iwo ]):irfK would fonn n joint snTnolIiinj; 
similar to tlial sciii at K, Fijj;. lOO. In tlitis all<)\viii;f tlii' upper 
liody lo I'loji'd tliroii<^h tlu' iilatfoim A. it woiiM UMiiiiic to lie 
lu'ld up by im-ans of hrackt'ts A', auti liy llii.s plan tlio hole X 
would not l>c rc(juired. 

"While ui)on this subject, it might be well to suggest an idea 
with reference to running large cupolas for constant light heats. 
Ill many cases, were the cupola lined up so as to make it 
smaller, much expense in fuel would be saved. For example, 
a 48" cupola could, at a small outlay, be lined up to 3U" ; thea 
when business warranted it, the false lining could be taken out, 
and most of the fire-brick saved for periodical American busi- 
ness depressious. 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 273 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 

There having been recently many encomiums upon the merits 
of coke for raeltmg iron, and none for coal, it seems to me that 
some, through short acquaintance with coke, are a little too 
enthusiastic to show ui) one good fuel at the expense of 
another. I do not deny that coke is a good fuel to melt with : 
nevertheless, coal is also good, and in some ways superior, for 
which I would not like to see its use abandoned. I hope to 
here show wherein the merits of each fuel lie, and to present a 
few ideas that may assist those wishing to change from coal to 
coke. 

The merits claimed for coke are as follows : First, that it ivill 
melt faster than coal; second, that it requires less blast pres- 
sure; third, that it is a cheaper fuel than coal; and, fourth, 
that it contains less impurities^ and will malce softer castings. 

The first three are certainly true ; but regarding the fourth, 
I have doubts. 

Either through design, or lack of observation, there seem to 
be three important points in the use of coke and coal that have 
never been brought out. One is regarding the life and heat of 
the metal ; another, the length of heats ; the third, qualities 
required in melting heavy iron. The foundr3'men in my sec- 
tion of the country have had experience with coke for a long 
time ; and I have yet to hear any of them say that coke, on an 
average, is better than coal for making hot metal, for length of 
heats, or for soft castings. To run long heats, and have metal 
keep its life, is a very important factor with many foundries ; 
such, for instance, as those doing heavy work, where the first 



274 COKK AND rOAI, I.N .Mi;i,TI.Nf; lltON. 

five or ten tons nifltcd liavc to stand in a ladli- from one to two 
hours, waitinii for more iron to lio ini'ltcd or anotlii-r ladle to lie 
lillcd. 'I'iii'rc is a nolalilc fcatiiri' — that ol" tlic life of liciniil 
iron — thai many shops ma}' not notice, as with them the metal 
may be said to he no sooner out of the cupola than it is pouretl 
into the moulds. I am a firm believer in meltini^ iron '* hot," 
as I know it to be a fact that stronger castings can be made by 
so doing. 

The length of heats has in my practice been increased by 
using coal with coke ; and in this section many foundries mix 
coal with coke, in order to do clean cupola work, and i)roduce 
hot iron. That a cupola will run longer with a mixture of 
Lehigh coal and coke, is admitted by many fouudrymeu to be a 
fact. 

In order to make my subject plain, and to show waj's of 
charging, the accompanying cuts (Figs. 101, 102) are inserted. 
The cupolas, as shown, are charged for ordinary heats. To 
run at their full capacity, about ten pounds more fuel should be 
added to each charge. 

To commence with, T will state that the dcscri))tion of the 
various modes of melting here given are not of test heats got up 
to show how fast melting can be done, or to present the two- 
sided question of economy in fuel. The heats described are 
the average practical workings of a few common, plain, round 
cupolas in Cleveland. The Cuyahoga, Viaduct, IColipse, and 
Globe Works have kindly allowed me to publish their ways of 
melting. 

The Cu3*ahoga and Globe Works make lieavy steam-engine 
and machinery castings ; the Eclipse does a large business iu 
house work and general jobbing castings ; while the ^'ia(luct 
Foundry makes a specialty of vapor oil stoves and light jobbing 
castings. These four specialties cover about all ordinary 
foundry eastings, so that nearly all cau apply one or the other 
to their own class of castings made. 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 275 

The Cuyahoga and Globe Works each has two cupolas ; 
and, their smallest ones being of about the same size, I have 
chosen them to show their practice of using coke and coal. The 
Globe Works' cupola is charged with all coke ; the Cuyahoga, 
with coke and coal. The charges of iron, as shown, are con- 
tinued to the end of the cupola's capacity. The Globe Works' 
blast pressure is five ounces, obtained from a Sturtevant No. 8 
fan. Time of melting, when using all coke, three and a half 
tons per hour. 

The Cuyahoga's blast pressure is seven ounces, obtained from 
a Root rotary-blower No. 5. Time of melting, with coal and 
coke, three tons per hour. 

The Eclipse Works' mode of charging, with all coke, for a 
heat of seven tons, is, 700 pounds of coke for the bed and 1,200 
pounds of iron for the first charge, the balance of iron charges 
being all 800 pounds. Between the charges, 95 pounds of 
coke. The cupola is 35" inside diameter, having four round 
h" tuyeres, about 18" from the sand-bed to the centre. The 
height of charging doors, bottom to foundation plate, is nine 
feet ; blast pressure, seven ounces, obtained from a No. 7 
Sturtevant fan. Time of melting, 6,500 pounds per hour. 

The Viaduct Foundry's mode of charging, with coal and coke, 
for a heat of six tons, is, 738 pounds of coke and 400 pounds 
of coal for the bed; first charge of iron, 1,800 pounds. The 
balance of iron charges, 1,200 pounds; fuel between them, 123 
pounds of coke and 25 pounds of coal. The cupola is 38" 
inside diameter, and has four oblong tuj'cres of the dimensions 
shown at right of cupola (Fig. 102), their height from sand- 
bottom being about 16". The height of charging-door from plate 
is eleven feet ; blast pressure, ten ounces, No. 5 Sturtevant fan. 
Time of melting, 6,500 pounds per hour. As a general thing, 
in the charging of this cupola, there is not an}' fuel used be- 
tween the last charges. 

For a flux, the Cuyahoga Works use fluor spar. In using 



27<> ("OKH AM) CdAI, IN Mi:i;ilNf; IIU)N. 

tliis flux, wo shovel al)()iit Iwi-lve iK)nii»ls on tlio top of each 
cliaiLTi'. with the cxcoptioii of the I'lrst two or tliive eharj^es. 

Ill iiirltiiiif witli cdUc, till' lire docs not icipiiro to he ntarted 
as early, simply heeanse coke does not n'(piiie a.s lon<; a time 
to kindle as eoal. The idi-a of time for kindling shonld l)e to 
allow sullleient to have the fuel all on fire before iron is 
char<Ted. Any longer than this is only a waste of fnel, and a 
detriment to suecessfnl melting. The draught, and kinds f»f 
kindling used, often govern the time of starting (ires. The 
bed, when all coke, should be fn^ii G" to 10" higher than where 
coal is used. The charges of iron should not average much 
over one-half the weight of the charges when coal is used ; or, 
in plainer language, where a charge consists of 2, tOO pounds of 
iron with all coal, with all coke it should be about 1,400 pounds. 
As successful melting with coke cannot be done with low tuy- 
eres as with coal. As a general thing, coke melting requires 
tuyeres to be from 14" up to 30" al)ove the bottom plate, or 
about one-third higher than for coal. 1 do not mean by this 
that coke inciting cannot be done with low tuyeres, but that 
with IiIlzIi tuyeres longer heats will be obtained. 

1 recall here a case, where all coke lieing the fuel, the tuyeres 
had to be raised in order to successfully melt the required 
amount of iron. The shop in which this occurred was the 
Cleveland Rolling Mill Company's foundry, Newburgh, O. 
Working there at that time, I carefully noted the results of the 
change. The size of cupola was 44" inside diameter ; charging- 
door eight feet six inches fi"om the bottom plate. The tu^-cres 
were originally about 20" high ; and l)y the time fourteen tons 
of iron were melted, the bottom had generally to be dropi)ed. 
This became a nuisance, as the shop would often be left with 
moulds unpoured. The tuyeres were finally raised to 30" high, 
and altered from flat tuyeres similar to one shown in cujiola, 
Fig. 102, to six o" I'ound tuyeres. >\l>out 7" bi-low the tuyeres 
a slag-hole was inserted. With lliLse changes the cupula would 
successfully melt twenty tons. 




1~] 



stage "Floor Unv 



ObloiKj Tuyere 



7 dia. 




04 



c 



J 



'Flat Tuyere 



p.rcp nrfl 




Plan of Wind Box 
anil Tuyeres 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 277 

In melting for machine or heavy castings, the iron is gener- 
ally allowed to accumulate before tai)piug-out. This accumula- 
tion causes the raising and lowering of fuel (that is, if tuyeres 
are higli enough to permit such action), thereby not leaving any 
inside body of fuel long at a time exposed to the cooling effects 
of the cold blast. The benefit of this cannot but be seen if 
connected with the reason for slackening the blast and barring 
a cupola, as noted in the following. A Lehigh-coal fire has 
more of a body than a coke fire. The blast, as it goes into 
a cupola, will more readily cool off coke than coal ; and the 
cooled bod}' of fuel, which more or less sticks to the front of 
tuyeres, if not attended to, gradually increases until it reaches 
nearly to the cupola's centre, which results in scaffolding or 
bunging up the cupola. To assist in preventing such results, 
the l)last should occasionally be slackened, the tuyere peep-holes 
opened, and then, with a bar, the cooled body of fuel, and frozen 
droppings of metal, shotdd be driven in towards the centre of 
the fire. This will greatly cause the cooled body to be burned 
up, the frozen droppings re-melted, and give a clean hot body 
of fuel for the cold blast to play upon. 

A point that has much to do with ill success in changing from 
coke to coal is using too strong a blast. As a general thing, 
about one-third less pressure should be used for coke than for 
coal. I know it is nice to see a cupola melt fast ; but not so 
enchanting to have to re-line it about every month, which will 
often result from too strong a blast. 

It is impossible to obtain good clean iron, or have a cupola 
run very long heats, where a cupola is being cut to pieces with 
the blast. The cupola on the right (Fig. 102) ran for about 
one year, almost daily, without being re-lined ; which will, I 
think, be acknowledged as a good showing. I do not credit all 
to the merits of a mild blast. There is another feature that 
undoubtedly had much to do with it : that is, the daubing-up of 
the cupola with fire-clay. 




1^ 






I0« M«. •/ /roita^ 






I 



V -J J ^^ 



■ Jfe*^ 



; > '>^ -^ 



_j» .too lb,uft„.,l j^- 



Btaff« rioiur Lint 



Ot.luH.j luyrr* 



"-r din. 




r.rrv jvn* 




fif . 101. 



Fig. 102. 



27ft POKE AM) COW. IN MF.I/riNf; lltDN. 

In l>otli of oiir fouiwlrv fn|i<)l:is, we constantly use coal and 
C'onnc'llsv ilk- i-oUc, as hlu)\vu, and. Iiy piopcr attcidion to slat^- 
giiig (which 1 am sorry to .say lias to be done thn»n<rh the 
tapping-lu)!^, because of not liavin<i a good chance to place a 
regular slag-hole), our cu|)olas will run for hours, anil then 
drop as clcaTi as if the}' had only been in blast for one hour. 

The smallest cupola which is here shown has been kept in 
blast from 1 r.M. until 7..'i() r.M., and then dropped clean. In 
fact, I have yet to see such a thing as scaffolding or cupola 
bunging. 

Jn melting with coke and coal, there is great benefit derived 
from their mixture ; for while it is true coke lias some advan- 
tages, it is also true coal has others. As we have noticed 
some of the qualities in which coal is superior, there is one 
more that can be added; viz., its ability to melt heavy blocks 
of scrap iron. The benefit of coal in this respect could not 
be better shown than by melting a three-ton block accom- 
plished by the Pratt & Whitney Company, Hartford, Conn. 
Having read, some time since, in " The American ^Machinist," 
of this firm melting a six-thousand pound block of iron, I 
thought at the time there had been a mistake made by adding 
a cipher. As the article did not describe how it was done, or 
any of the details, there was nothing to figure from : so, to 
insure that it was correct, I made it my business during my 
last tour to pay this firm a visit. In talking with Mr. Gardner, 
the foundry foreman, upon the subject, he said it was a fact, 
and took me out to the yard where there ■was a duplicate of 
the six-thousand-i)ound piece he had melted. I told him I 
thought he had mi'lted the heaviest block that had ever been 
charged in a cupola of this size, and asked his ])ermission to 
describe the melting at length, as it was a creditable job, and 
would interest many foundrymen. 

The cupola used was a Mackenzie, the size being as shown 
in the engraving. The process of melting was as follows : 




Fig. 103. — Charging a three-ton block. 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 279 

For bed, 2,000 pounds of coal, on which was placed the three- 
ton block. Around this was placed 400 pounds of coal, and the 
fire started. After it was well going, the cupola was charged, 
to complete a heat of 22,000 pounds, by having four charges 
of 500 pounds of coal and 4,000 pounds scrap and pig in each 
charge. The first 500 pounds of coal was placed upon the 
6,000-pound block, thereby burying the block in 2,900 pounds 
of coal. The metal was used to pour a similar block, and a 
class of work which, had the metal been somewhat dull, the 
castings would run full. Although this class of work was 
selected, Mr. Gardner said the metal would have run lighter 
work. 

The fuel used for the above heat was one to five, this per- 
centage being necessary by the requirement of an extra weight 
of fuel for the bed. For ordinary heats the bed is 1,500 
pounds of coal, with the charges same as used with the block ; 
so that, for an ordinary heat of 22,000 pounds, the fuel would 
be 1 to 6.28. When this block was charged, the cupola was 
well burnt out. Had it not been, Mr. Gardner said he could 
not have melted the block,- as there would not have been room 
to properly bed it. For the purpose of admitting this block, 
the charging-door was removed and enlarged so as to make 
it about the height shown. The crane's jib is racked out by 
the handle E^ and the load let down by means of the handle 
below E. The cut shows the block suspended, ready to be 
lowered down on its bed ; also, when it is bedded in place. 

The charging of heavy scrap by hand and backbone jibs 
is not only a laborious job, but it is injurious to the lining and 
bed, and iron can seldom be placed as one might wish. The 
way it is generall}' done is to let it drop from the charging- 
door to the bed, which, in some cupolas, means a fall of seven 
or eight feet. 

In most all trades, more or less consideration is given the 
comfort of workmen, such as facilities for properly handling 



280 COKK AND COAI, IN Ml'.I.TINfJ IliON. 

niatorlnl, liiil for iis foiiiMlryincii :iny lliiiii; is jjononilly lookcrl 
uitoii as <f()()(l I'liotij^li : (licii-furc :iii\' (Ifvice wliich t'lmrcs to 
our coiiifort, such as this cujKjhi crauc wliich Mr. I'ratt has 
(k'sigiK'd, is 1o<j1vi'(1 upou witii favor liy all fouudrynu-ii. In 
tho early part of this chapti-r it shouM liavt' Itccii uicutioncd, 
that iu the cupola at tlic Cuyahoj^a Works, as shown liy tiie cut, 
much heavy scrai) is melted ; and on account of this we used 
the coal as described. 

]\Ir. (iardner could not have accomplislio<l the successful 
melting of such a heavy block as liis with all coke. Outside 
the Cuyahoga Works' cupola scrap-house, can be seen a pile of 
heavy i)ieces of old machinery-scrap ranging from three hun- 
dred up to eight hundred pounds iu weight. To keep this pile 
from increasing, we arc obliged to melt as many of these 
})ieces as possible ever}' heat. In charging them, we omit 
putting any in with the first twelve hundred pounds, as to do 
so the height of bed would rcciuirc to be increased. The first 
heavy l)lock will generally be placed upou the top of the fuel 
which covers the twenty-four hundred pounds of iron, which is 
the weight of the first charge placed upon the bed ; then, wheu 
the first block comes down, the cupola is hotter, and there is 
less risk of the heavy blocks sinking dowu below the melting- 
point. 

There are few foundries but have some heavy pieces of scrap 
they would like to get rid of, and would do so were they not 
afraid of bunging-up their cupolas. I would advise such to 
follow Mr. Gardner's plan, or, if the pieces are lighter, to save 
fuel they could place them in the second charge ; and if they 
thought it would damage their cupola, or make bad work l»e- 
fore it would get all melted, the bottom could be drop]>ed. and 
what was left of the block could be charged in another heat. 
Such heavy pieces arc l)est melted when one can arrange to 
have work that does not rccpiire the hottest of iron, lli-avy 
scrap when it is melted is superior to light for making strong 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 281 

mixtures ; and, although it takes more fuel to melt it, it may 
ofteu pay iu the eud to do so. 

There is au adage that "it is a poor foundry that cannot 
make its own scrap." The way some lose heavy castings, one 
would think they were trjung to supply their neighbors. The 
loss of heavy castings makes heavy scrap ; and for some shops 
the above may suggest ideas to help them get it out of sight, 
and rid themselves of unpleasant memories. 



282 INTKLLIGKNCK AND ECONOMY IN MKLTINO. 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONO:\IY IN MELTING. 

TinntK has at no time been the scientific thought given the 
subject of melting that is given it at the present time. A few 
years back, there were more superstitious melters than intelli- 
gent ones. In fact, there can at the present day be found 
men who look upon the cupola as something more supernatural 
than mechanical. If any thing goes wrong, they give an in- 
quirer a look as much as to say, Question the gods. Dull iron 
one day, hot iron the next, and a bunged cupola the following 
day, may be excusable in some shops ; but, to the intelligent 
founder of to-day, such workings are connected with cause and 
effect, and a want of knowledge. 

The cupola can easily be the master if one docs not strive to 
master it. To master the cupola, is simply to have it do as one 
may wish. Hot iron one day, dull another, three or four dif- 
ferent grades got out witliout being mixed, heavy sci'ap run 
down, and fast or slow melting, are points that can be and are 
mastered by intelligence. It may be a broad assertion, but 
nevertheless the writer would say, that in no part of foundry 
practice is there a better chance to control results than in melt- 
ing. The chances arc far more in favor of a first-class moulder 
having bad results with his work than he would were he a first- 
class meltcr. Any mechanic well versed in l)()th l)raiK-hes, I 
think, will verify this statement. 

Having, just before completing this second volume, made a 
tour through many States, I was much i»leased to see with 
what interest many foundrymen — who, liy the way, were 
readers of " foundry literature " — luid taken up the subject of 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING. 283 

melting. Kioht here I would like to say, that, although there 
are those who sueer at foiiiuby literature, a travel througli the 
countr}^ will prove that the most intelligent and progressive 
moulders are those who read it. It is not alwaj's the informa- 
tion we get from reading, that measures its value, but the 
thinking it often induces us to do. 

Among the most intelligent cupola managers, the question 
of economy in fuel is the all-important one ; so important with 
some, that it reminds one of the man who tried to teach his 
mule to live without eating. They keep striving until they find 
themselves sadly the losers. 

This question of economy in fuel is a misleading one. With 
intelligent management, and conditions alike, two distinct 
foundries may melt with a like low percentage of fuel, but what 
may be economy for one shop may be quite the reverse for 
another. 

One shop may have a class of work which will admit of being 
poured when the iron is in a less fluid condition than another. 
Then, again, work may be of the same class, but one has ar- 
rangements for taking care of the iron which will not admit of 
carrying it to the moulds as quickly as the other, such as the 
distance it may have to be carried by hand or power, etc. I 
have worked in shops, where, on account of their poor arrange- 
ment and that of their cranes, the hottest kind of iron would 
often be too dull to properly pour into the mould by the time 
the ladle reached it. Such a shop, if arranged so that the 
metal could be poured into the mould before it began to lose its 
life to any extent, might often with safety melt with much less 
fuel, from the simple fact that they would not require the iron 
to l)e in as fluid a state. 

There are many things to be considered with reference to 
what is true economy in melting ; and it is not right for one 
to insist that because some other shop may be melting one to 
eight, nine or ten, every other shop should do likewise. The 



2^4 INTMI.I.Kir.Nf'K AND KPONriMY IN Ml-I.TINO 

size of cupola, luiLjlil of liiyt'ics, wciirlit of licals, nnd llip ques- 
tion of nimiiiiir tilt' luals imifoniily in \vci<f|ils and mixtures as 
in a specially fouiidiv. or no two alike as in a jolj|)iii<r foumlry, 
also the class of iron to be melted, and the work to he juiured, 
— all these are thinpjs which ;i;reatly rcjiulate the per cent with 
which the iron may lie nu'llcd in the successful runniuf!; of all 
the shop's work. It is no true economy/ in melting, ichen, hy 
meUinfj tcith a low j>er cent, the iron comes down so dull that 
castings are lost, and ladles " bunged vp." It don't reipiirc 
the loss of mau}' castings to balance the cost of the few extra 
pounds of fuel it would have taken to make the iron fluid 
enough to fully insure the running of the castings lost because 
the metal was dull. 

Some shops can admit, in practice, melting done with a less 
per cent than others that do the same class of work, from the 
sinii)le fact that they have excellent facilities for handling 
the metal quickl}'. In cases where work is such as not to require 
very fluid metal, the low jjcrcentage that some may with suc- 
cess use certainly would not be advisable for others to practise. 
It may be thought tliat the iron is very hot ; l)ut if it had to be 
carried as far as it must be in some shops, and tiien poured into 
castings about as thick as paper, it would be found that there 
was a difference in " hot iron." 

Of course the writer has no intention to disparage economy 
in the use of fuel; but the only icay to rightly judge of true 
economy is to see the facilities of the shop, and class of tvork to 
be made. For my part, I would not question one to five as 
being extravagant until I knew all the conditions. 

As a matter of fact, when all the circumstances are consid- 
ered, iron is being economically nu-lted from one to five up to 
one to eleven. To melt lower than one to eight, is no doubt 
creditable, and a saving in the cost of melting ; that is, if by 
so doing the welfare of the cupola, ladles, and castings is not 
sacrificed; but were the facts known, more cupolas would be 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING, 285 

found melting one to five than to seven, eight, or nine. I am 
well aware that melting one to eight, nine, or ten, sounds very 
economical when classed against one to five, six, or seven. To 
concisely give his experience and obseiTation on this point, the 
author would assert that in any cupola, running to its medium 
capacity, iron cannot be melted as hot or in as fluid a condition 
with fuel one to nine, ten, or eleven, as with one to five, six, 
or seven. Where intelligence is coupled with experience in 
melting, a good judge of fluid iron can easily detect the de- 
crease in the metal's fluidity caused by melting with less than 
one to eight. With the best possible management and condi- 
tions, I think almost all experts will agree with the author in 
saying that any less fuel than one to eight in medium-sized 
heats will show its results by giving a fluid iron with less life. 
Of course there are many cases where much hotter iron with 
one to eight can be obtained than others would give with one 
to five ; but what the author wishes understood by the foregoing 
is, that where one can " melt hot" with one to eight, he will 
notice a decrease in the metal's life and fluidity, should melting 
be done with less fuel. 

To properly charge and take care of a cupola, involves a 
knowledge many are not willing to concede. It is often sur- 
prising, how hot some melters can bring down their iron with 
comparatively less fuel than others use. The management of a 
cupola is every thing : some study to make it a science, while 
others act as if the cupola were only a hole iuto which the 
iron and fuel are to be thrown, and, if it does not come down 
right, lay the blame to a poor blast or cupola, etc. Some in 
melting do not even weigh their stock. In such case, there 
cannot be a uniformity in melting. If one wishes to master 
melting, he must at least weigh the fuel and iron, so as to have 
data from which to work. He can then regulate his heats, and 
have a 'uniformity that it is im'possihle to obtain by guess-work. 
When cupolas arc charged at random, one may see the first of 



28G INTKLLIUKNCK AND KCONOMY IN MKI.TINO. 

the heat l)riii{]; down hot iron ; the middle, dull iron ; and the 
end, atjiiin, hot iron. Tlu're may be a half-dozen ehanfj^i-s in 
the lluidity of the iron, every charge seeming to make an altera- 
tion in this respect. Uniformity in melting requires the em- 
ployment of iiUcUifjence and system, "With this, one can have 
as hot or as dull iron as he may desire. With system, we 
know how high to have a bed, pressure of blast, and the per- 
centage of fuel to use, etc., to assist the obtaining whatever 
fluidity of iron we require ; and the cupola is as easily regulated 
as a clock. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 287 



ODDITY AND SCIENCE IN THE CONSTRUC- 
TION OF CUPOLAS. 

EcoNO^rY in the use of fuel, and fast melting, are points 
sought for in coustructing cupolas. To this end, many odd 
features have been introduced. The noticeable oddity of some 
cupolas is in their outline, while with others it is all in the 
tuj-eres ; then, again, we see the two combined. / have often 
thought that oddity was devised to bewilder and blind, more than 
to attain ivijyroveynents in practical residts. At least, the attain- 
ment of oddity is sometimes the oul}' success. By oddity in 
cupola construction, is meant a departure or break from the 
plain round cupola having one row of either round or flat 
tuyeres. The different oddities, if shown, might fill a fair-sized 
book. Out of them all, but very few have any advantage over 
the common tuyere straight cupola. .Europe, no doubt, is far 
ahead of our country in the origination of new designs for 
cupolas ; but whether she has accomplished any thing more 
than America in true economy and sjjeed, is a question. Should 
any foreigners wish to compare notes with us, I would be pleased 
to have them mainly confine their tests to the two following 
points : first, the fluidity of the iron ; second, the greatest amount 
of iron the cupola can cleanly and successfully melt. These 
two points are generallj^ ignored in all newspaper accounts of 
cupola working. What is one to know of any benefit accruing 
by the footings showing one to eight or ten, if he is not in- 
formed of the fluidit}^ of the iron melted? Any cu2iola can be 
made to melt one to eight or ten ; btit ivhether the Dietul is only 
good for pouring or running solid blocks, or can run thin stove- 



288 coNSTiii'tTioN OF crroLAs. 

jjlate aistinga^ in the point loc should Icnou: of to jmhjp as to the 
merits of the economy in fuel. 

Kt'ganliiig tlu; Icnixtli <>f time a cupola may lie iiin without 
buni;in<:;-ui), is auotlKT point of iinpoitancc. If one can daily 
melt ten tons in a 30" cniK)la. wlii-re others can hardly do it 
iu a 40" cupola, there surely is some advantage gained. 

The running of cupolas is somewhat like foot-racing. Sovie 
can do excellent icork in a short run, but cjice them a long one, 
and they soon become '■'' pUiyed out." 

With referciico to where there is a failure in the length of 
time a cupola will melt satisfactorily, 1 will venture the asser- 
tion that the fault is more often due to vii^mcuiogment, than 
to the design of the cupola. 

The great fault with cupolas is that of having so nuich heat 
escape up and out of the stack. Could the heat from two 
cupolas thus lost he conceutrated into a third cupola, a person 
would not be far off in saying iron could l)e melted. Some, 
to derive benefit from this escaping flame, make their charging- 
door as high as they practically can. Others try to construct 
lln' cupola so as not to generate this flame. To this cud, some 
cupolas are nuide with two rows of tuyeres. The princi[)le 
involved is simply the admitting of an upper volume of air or 
oxygen to unite with the carbon gas liberated from the fuel 
by the bottom tuyeres. The flame one sees at common cupo- 
las' charging-door or stack is gieatly caused by the escai)ing 
gas meeting with the oxygen of the air. If, instead of allow- 
ing this gas to reach the charging-door to receive oxygen, we 
admit oxygen about at the height al)Ove the first row of tuyeres, 
where the melting-point commences, we there generate the 
flame, or burn some of the gases that otherwise pass up the 
stack. This point is further treated upon p. .']()."). If we can 
confine the heat thus produced to the melting-point, instead of 
letting it i)ass u\) the stack, there should be some bent'fit derived. 

The amount of air admitted through the u[ipi'r tuyeres, to 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 289 

combine with the gas produced by the air passed througli the 
lower tiij'ercs, should only be sudicient to consume the gas 
generated. If more than this is admitted, the solid carbon, or, 
commonly speaking, the fuel, will be attached, and converted 
into gas, which will escape, thereby causing imperfect combus- 
tion. 7/*, by two rows of tuyeres, more gas is made than there is 
oxygen famished to consume, the fact can readily be knoion by 
the amount of Jiame seen at charging -door. The greater the 
distance in a cupola between the bottom and the charging- 
door, and the fuller it is charged, the less will be the flame 
seen. 

In order to conduct some experiments upon this subject of 
two rows of tuj^eres, I had in our cupola (shown in chapter upon 
" Melting with Coke and Coal," p. 273) four 2^" tuyeres placed 
about 1-i" above the top of the lower tuyere. In making these 
tuyeres, we simply cut four round holes in the top of the wind- 
box over the peep-holes ; then, after four round holes were cut 
in the cupola's shell, 2^" gas-pipe was used to make the con- 
nection ; and to make the turn, there was a T used having three 
openings. One opening was used as a peep-hole, which was 
closed by a plug screwed into it. In the centre of this screw- 
plug, there was a hole bored, ^|", through which was worked a 
^" rod having a cast-iron conical round plug on its end suffi- 
ciently large to jiist admit of its sliding easily, and thus regu- 
lating the blast. My experience with these tuyeres was an 
observed imjyrovement in the speed of melting ; and by them at 
least as hot iron ivas obtaiyxed. 

Another advantage which might be well to notice is, that in 
running long heats the upper tuyeres are of much assistance in 
prolonging the life of a heat. Should the lower tu^-eres become 
to any serious degree bunged up, the top tu3-eres will admit 
much of their blast, thus letting air into the cupola which other- 
wise would be excluded. 

After running a month or so with the two rows of tuyeres, 



2!tO rONSTIMTTION OF Cri'OLAS. 

I li:i(l two of the iijipi-r tiiycns raised up so us to I>o 20" altove 
the Ixjttoiii tuyeres. This, then, jjave us what iiii^ht lie teniieil 
three partial rows of tuyeres. Tlie hij^hest row I ha<l put in 
for the piMj)ose of tryiii<f wliat cfTeet tliere woiiM l)e from Mnw- 
iiig a lilasl ill among tiie first ciiarge of iron. JSIaiiy are unch-r 
the impression that wiien tliere are two rows of tuyeres, the 
bed of fuel must 1)0 far ahove the upper row, or dull iron will 
be the result. All I can say regarding this is, that we noticed 
no difference in the fluidity of the metal l)y having the two 
tuyeres above mentioned blow right into the first charge of iron. 
To ascertain if we were making any advancement in combus- 
tion, we opened and closed the top rows by means of the above- 
mentioned valve. When the top rows were open, the flame at 
the charging-door would be so light that one could stand close 
to it, and experience very little discomfort; but the minute the 
top rows of tuyeres were closed, a strong flame would iiuff up 
sufficient to make it ahnost too Lot for one to stand there any 
length of time, thus fully demonstrating the benefit of top 
tuyeres in assisting perfect combustion. In experimenting 
with these upper tuyeres, the two rows would alternately be 
opened and closed for the i)urpose of learning which two of 
the four tuyeres, when open, would most diminish the flame 
at the charging-door. We found that when tlie two highest 
tuyeres were open, the flame was the least, and they were the 
quickest to act : notwithstanding they seemed to diminish the 
flame the most, I don't think they forwarded the speed in melt- 
ing as much as the two lower tuyeres. We also experimented 
with closing and enlarging the tuyere openings. From 21" di- 
ameter we closed them up to IJ" diameter. The 2]" gas-pipes 
gave the ])est result, both in speed and in reducing the flame at 
the charging-door. Also it might be well to state, that the 2\" 
pipes cut out the lining much more than the 1?," ones tlid. The 
writer's experiments with these upper tuyeres would lead him 
to give the following rule for any who might wish to give upper 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUI'OLAS. 291 

tuyeres a trial. Insert them from IG" to 18" above the top of 
the bottom tuyeres, and have them of such a diameter as to 
admit from two to three tenths as many square inclies of blast 
as are admitted by the lower tuyeres. Some, in setting upper 
tuyeres, have them inclining down, so as to have them lowest 
at the inside of the cupola for the purpose of throwing the 
blast down so as to meet that which enters from the lower 
tuyeres, which they claim is essential lo the success of combus- 
tion. In one way, at least, it does good ; and that is in keep- 
ing an}- droppings from running down the tuyeres. The number 
of upper tuyeres to use for sizes above 36" cupolas would be 
six ; from 36" down to 26", four ; or one between every lower 
tuyere which the cupola is intended to have, or has already. 
The upper tuyeres should have some kind of a valve arrange- 
ment, so that the blast admitted can be regulated or shut off at 
pleasure. 

When upper tuyeres are used, it is better not to open them 
until the melting is fairly under w^a}- ; and, further, they should 
be closed before all the iron is down ; allowing them to blow 
at the end will tend to badl}' " cut out the lining." 

As any improvement rarely is favorable to every thing, the 
"back-lash" to upper tuyeres tends, more or less, to cause 
burning-out of the lining, and thus often increasing the amount 
of slag, which may sometimes cause trouble. 

As there are oddities in cupola designs that show no gain 
over the common cupola, it may interest the reader to learn of 
some that are doing good work. The cupolas shown are said 
to be melting economically, and with speed. Two of them 
embody the principle of admitting oxygen through " upper 
tuyeres " for the purpose above described. The oddity in 
Messrs. Callahan & Dearmon's cupola is all confined to the 
tuyeres. The blast enters an inner wind-belt F, which extends 
entirely around the cupola. From this belt the blast enters the 
cupola through seventeen tuyeres, a section of which is seen in 



'2\^-2 



coNsrurcrioN or crroLAs. 



Fij;. 101. At K (lie fif)nt view is seen ; and at /?, a section 
throiiiili till' crntic. Tlic iiiniiiicr of .scttiM<; tlif tiiyfrt'S will lio 
betti'i- iiii(lcisti)()i| by noticiii;^ /•'. jn the ck-vatioii <»(' llic cupola, 
Fig. Ki.'i. l-"iir- 10(1 shows the outside view of IIk- cupola where 




Cullahan aiid Dcartnon's WorTis Cupolaf 
liaytoti, Ohio, 



the blast enters. Fig. 107 shows the back view of the tuyeres 
as would be seen by looking in through the luaucii l)last pipes 
at F. The two 10" branch pii)es connect U) a main pii)e 12" 
diameter. The length of this pipe from fan to cupola is eighty- 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 293 

fivo foot. The blower used is a No. 7 Sturtevaut ; revolutions, 
two thousand one hundred per minute. 

The cupola heat was as follows : For the bed, G48 pounds of 
coke, upon which was charged 1,200 pounds of iron. The 
after charges, of which there were nine, were made each of 60 
pounds coke and 1,200 pounds of iron. 

The totals for the heat were : 

Amount of iron melted 12,000 lbs. 

Amount of fuel consumed 1,188 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron used 1 to lOj^g- 

The fluidity of the iron melted was described "hot." As 
the iron is for castings used in the manufacture of hydraulic 
oil machinery, the iron would necessarily require to be of fair 
quality. The fire was started at 1.15 o'clock ; first iron charged, 
2.30; blast put on, 3.12; iron down, 3.18; bottom dropped, 
4.42. This shows the length of heat to be one hour and thirty 
minutes. J. B. Francis, the foundry foreman, writes that the 
scrap used was light, and that the blast had to be occasionally 
slackened in order to allow the iron to be taken care of. For 
a flux, fluor spar was used. The iron used was half scrap and 
pig ; the fuel, Connellsville coke. 

The next cupola is that of the National Iron Works, San 
Francisco, Cal. W. AV. Hanscom, M. E., the designer, gives 
the following record of heat taken March 24, 1884 : — 

Time of starting fire 1.30 p.m. 

Charging first iron 3.00 " 

Blast put on 4.37 " 

Iron down 4.45 " 

Bottom dropped 6.20 " 

CHARGES. 

Bed, Lehigh coal .... 650 lbs., iron, 3,000 lbs. 

English coke .... 125 " " 2,000 " 

« . . . . 100 " " 1,500 " 

" . . . . 100 " " 1,300 " 

" . . . . 100 " " 1,300 " 



204 



roNsTiHTTioN or rn'f)i,As. 




S 



I rvr^ 



-0 



w 



yational Iron TTvrln 
Sati Fraticisco, Cat. 

Fig. 108. 

BLAST riJESSUKE. 

4.52 p.M U. 

4.05 
5.05 
5.20 
5 32 
5.45 
5.51 
6.00 
G.i:5 



ics water. 



11. 8 
l.-)2 
15.6 
16.4 
13.4 
11 
S.2 
5.6 



PONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 20r) 

TOTALS. 

Iron meltefl 0,100 ]hs. 

Fuel consumed 1,075 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron 1 to 8.4G 

Length of heat, 1 hour and 43 minutes. 

"The iron was hot enough for stove-plate. Had the work 
been heavier, so that crane Ladles could have been used, faster 
melting would have been done. Were coke instead of coal 
used for bed, five hundred and twenty-five pounds would be 
the weight used, thereby making the ratio 1 to 9.57. The iron 
charged was scrap and pig iu equal proportions. A No. 5 
Sturtevant fan was used ; blast pipe, twelve inches diameter 
and fifteen feet long. The size of cupola given is when first 
lined up. At the time this heat was taken, it would be about 
three inches larger diameter." The foregoing is not thought 
to present the lowest ratio this cupola can be made to melt 
with. The author has a report from Mr. Hanscom of a heat 
taken later than the above, which shows the ratio to be 1 to 
11.64. This only goes to substantiate what is set forth in the 
chapter on " Economy in Melting," which states that any cupola 
can be made to melt with a low percentage of fuel ; but whether 
the metal is good for solid blocks, or stove-plate castings, is 
the point which decides the economical part of the question. 

The record of workings for the Niles Tool Works cupola is 
given as follows : — 

Time of starting fire 2.10 p.m. 

Charging first iron 3.30 " 

Blast put on 4.30 " 

Iron down 4.42 " 

Bottom droijped ' . . 6.05 « 



'2W 



coNS'iurci ION (»!■• crroi.As. 




Fig. 109.-Niles Tool Works Cupola, Hamilton, Ohio. 







^ 









••':Vn:>coKEcoV 



,1 f 




Fig. 110. -Cheney Cupola. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 297 

Bed, Cuiinellsville coke 



CIIAKCVS 






. . 1,200 lbs. 


iron, 


, 0,000 lbs, 


. . 572 " 


u 


6,000 " 


. . 572 " 


u 


6,000 « 


. . 704 " 


(; 


6,000 " 


. . GGO " 


" 


6,000 " 


. . 572 " 


" 


6,000 " 



TOTALS. 

Iron melted 36,000 lbs. 

Fuel consumed 4,280 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron 1 to 8.41 

Length of heat, 1 hour and 35 minutes. 

The iron is described as being very hot, and the cupola as 
giving entire satisfaction in both economy and speed. One- 
third scrap to two-thirds pig iron was melted. The blower is 
Root's No. G ; revolutions, one hundred and twenty-five per 
minute ; length of blast pipe, twenty-five feet. Fluor spar and 
limestone used for flux. 

The next cupola to be noticed is what is called " The Cheney 
Cupola." In its design, there are many admirable features 
■which commend themselves to the practical man. The follow- 
ing is Mr. Cheney's description of his cupola, as published 
by the " Boston Journal of Commerce." 

" The cut illustrates the manner of constructing an economi- 
cal cupola of medium size, to melt four tons of iron per hour. 
It is thirty-four inches inside diameter, and will melt six or 
seven tons of iron without slagging. By opening the slag-hole 
after four tons of iron have been drawn, the melt may be con- 
tinued to twenty tons. To make the slag fluid, so as to run off 
freely, use thirty pounds of limestone to one ton of iron. 

"In charging this cupola with coke, put 600 pounds on the 
bed ; on that, 2,000 pounds of iron. In the subsequent charges, 
use 130 pounds of coke and 1,400 pounds of iron. In a melt of 



208 roNs-j iMcrioN oi (tpolas. 

li'^lil tons, this cnpol:! will melt U'U jiounds of iron to ono poiiTnl 
of cokr. (II r\<^h\ poiuitls ol' iioii to (Hie jxdiiul <»f coal. If coal 
is iixmI |oi- fuel, till' sand-lu'd should l)t' iiKuk- alioiii tliicf or 
four iiiclns dci'iicr than when coke is used. 

'•'IMiis cupola is designed for ordinary foundry-work wluTO 
Kliar|) iron is wanted. For heavy foundry-work, such as east- 
ings, recpiiring several tons of iron in one piece, the l)ed may 
be made deeper l)y placing the tuyeres from four to six inehe-s 
higher in the large-size cui)oIas. 

'•Put on Mast as soon as the cupola is charged, and give this 
cu})ola al)out six ounces pressure of Idast for coke, and nine 
ounces pressure for coal. 

'• When the lining burns away, nnd the dimensions of the 
cupola are enlarged so that six hundred pounds coke fail to 
make the bed sixteen inches above the upper tuyeres, the coke 
in the bed must be increased ; also increase the iron on first 
charge in same proportion as the coke is increased. 

"Fig. 110 show^s a cupola shell 48" in diameter, continued 
same size to the full height; lined with 2" common brick flat- 
ways to top of charging-door, and inside these 4V' fire-ltrick. 
The common brick always remain, so that when the fire-brick 
gets thin the shell is protected. 

" A is the sand bottom. 

" li is the iron runner. 

" I is the slag runner. Outlet for slag is a 2" hole opposite 
the iron runner, ^" lower than the bottom of the lower tuyeres. 

" C, lower tuyeres. They decline inward ^" in G", and are 
16" above bed-plate, 8^" wide at face of lining, and S^" vertical, 
made with flange on the upjier side to bolt to the shell. The 
opening through the shell to admit the blast into these tuyeres 
is 3" by 5". Each opening admits fifteen square inches. 

" D, upper tuyeres. They are 2" in diameter, decline inward 
2.1" in C", and are 20" a])ove bed-plate at the inside of the 
lining. 'I'lie hole through the shell to admit Itlast is 1]'' in 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 



209 



(linmotcr. Six of these tuyeres are made with a flange on the 
top side so as to bolt the tuyere to the inside of the shell. 
These tuyeres each receive 1^ square inch blasts through the 
shell. 

" F is an 8" blast pipe to connect the wind-chamber with the 
main pipe, which should not be less tiian 12" in diameter. If 
the blower is more then fifty feet from the cupola, the main 
pipe should be 14" diameter. The wind-chambers have open- 
ings opposite each tuyere, with peep-holes in the shutters. 




Fig. 111. 



" E, wind-chamber, is 10" deep and 22" vertical, made in 
two sections, each section to supply wind to three tuyeres. 

" H, charging-door, is twelve feet above bed-plaie. 

"Fig. Ill shows a sectional view through the tuyeres. 
They are the same width as the lining between them, and supply 
an equal force of blast to all the fuel. The tuyere must be 
twice as large as the opening which admits the blast, and must 
occupy one-half the space around the inner circumference of 



,")0<) CONSTRUCTION Ol" CCl'OLAS. 

the ciiiKila. Ill laiircr oiijiola.^ incrcaso the nnnilior of tlir 
tnycivs. 

" Fij;. Ill' sliows a perspective vii'W of the wiiid-cliamlier, 
matle in stini-eirchs, so that when it is holted to the siu-ll it will 
exteud around it, forniinj^ one chamber to supply wind to all the 




Fig. 112. 

tuyeres, and dropping down m" in front of the lower tuyeres. 
If through carelessness the iron overflows the tuyeres into the 
wind-chamber, it is more easily removed tiian if the cham]»er is 
even on the bottom, aud the chamber is not iu the way of the 
slag-hole." 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 301 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 

In closing the preceding chapter, it may be said there are 
tiiose who, no doubt, would prefer the author's giving a few 
comments upon the merits of the respective cupolas therein 
mentioned. 

Taking them in the order shown, the first we come to is that 
at the Callahan and Dearmon's works. The style of tuyere 
used is one that ought to work well in melting with coke alone 
in straight cupolas which range from 48" down. Below 40" 
the tuyere area should be decreased in proportion to the de- 
crease in diameter of the cupola. From 40" to 48" it would be 
best to use the tuyere area shown ; for, to enlarge them would 
deter the blast more or less from being forced through the fuel 
to the centre of the cupola, and thus fail to create that rapid 
combustion which should exist there as well as at the outer 
circle. 

In melting with coke, it is well that laige tuyere areas be 
used, as they serve to prevent tuyeres from bunging up in ruu- 
niug off heavy heats. With coal, it is not as essential to have 
a large tuyere area, for the reason its life is not so readily 
chilled and ''blown out" by blast pressure as in the case of 
coke ; and also it is often beneficial to have the tuyere area 
made smaller for coal, so as to induce the pressure more in 
among the centre body of fuel. 

We require more j)ressnre. or density of blast, in melting with 
coal, for the simple reason, from its compactness it forms a most 
dense fuel. It must be understood that this extra pressure is 
not to be created by a contraction of the tuyeres : whenever 



'.)()2 coMMKNTr; ON crroLA.'^. 

prorjsuro must lie increased, il must Ito done l)y incrrnainrj the 
jxnfvr upon the hlmcrr ; and tlie iiieiease llieie <i('iiei:ited should 
exist in all the lihist-jiipes as well as at the eiitianee of the 
tiiyi-res. 

Chemically speakin^j;. it is not jucssnro that fuel demands to 
jjiodnce combustion, imt an ample supiily of o\yi:en : we use 
the pressure simply as a motive powi-r lo deliver and feed the 
oxygen to the carbon in the fuel; and could this oxygen l)C 
supplied in suflicient quantities, without the use of this i)ress- 
ure, cupolas could be made to run for months, if dirt and slag 
were taken care of, and the lining were of such a character as 
would withstand the constant heat. 

The smaller the area of cupola tuyeres, the more pressure 
the fuel in front of them receives. ^Vhen the area of tuyeres 
is such as to cause the blast to have its velocity and density 
increased as it enters the cupola, the i)roccss of '■' bunging up " 
at the tuyeres is greatly incited. The less the force of the 
blast is concentrated upon the fuel in front of tuyeres, the 
longer will they freely permit the proper volume of air to be 
blown into the cupola. 

The quantity of oxygen necessary to form and incite com- 
bustion is regulated acconling to the area of a cu[)ola, and the 
kind of fuel used. The quantity required is obtained by means 
of the speed given to the "blower," and the tuyeres are only 
used for the purpose of aflfording this quantity an entrance to 
the fuel in the cupola. Decreasing the tuyere area is similar to 
decreasing the nozzle of a hose-pipe for the pur})ose of increas- 
ing the velocity and length of the stream. In small cupolas, 
there is no fear but that streams of the blast can i)e made to 
reach centre of the cupola by the use of large nozzles or tuy- 
eres. For large cupolas, some decrease the tuyeie area for the 
l)urpose of forcing tiie Idasl to the eeiitie of the I'Upola. A 
l)lan which is usually the best to adoj^t is to have cujiolas 
of over 18" inside diameter contracted at the tuyeres similarly 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 303 

to the plan fidoptcd b}' the "Mackenzie cupola." In other 
words, if a cupola needs to be 50", GO", 70", or more in diam- 
eter, do not let the diameter at the tuyeres be enlarged over 
48": by this plan we can use a good large tuyere area, and at 
the same time give the blast an opportunity to reach the cu- 
pola's centre. A rule for the area of tuyere blast-pipes, etc., 
will be found in chapter upon " Areas of Tuyeres and Blast- 
pipe " (p. 31')). 

Another plan which works well with large cupolas is this: 
instead of making them round, to have them constructed oblong. 
B}' this mcthotl any area can be obtained, and at the same time 
the blast be given eveiy opportunity to reach the central body 
of the fuel. Some, in making their cupolas oblong, contract 
them at the tuyeres similarly to the one described in construct- 
ing round cupolas. It is, however, seldom best to do this 
with oblong cupolas, unless in case of a very large one ; for it 
is liable to result in the bunging-up of the cupola. Any cupola 
had better be made with a straight lining wherever it is practi- 
cal, or not injurious in other ways. When the shortest diame- 
ter of an oblong cu[)ola measures over 48", then it becomes 
advisable to contract the tuyeres so they shall not exceed 48" 
in distance at any point. With our ordinary pressure or dens- 
ity of blast used, this will afford the blast a good opportunity 
to penetrate through the fuel^ and thus promote the rapid com- 
bustion which should be created in the centre of a cupola. 

AVhcre the Callahan and Dearmon style of tuj'ere is used for 
lai-ge cupolas, say from 48" up to 72" or over, the better plan 
would be, not to enlarge the diameter much from that now 
shown at the tuj'ores ; for this would cause the cupola to be 
contracted at the tuyeres as described above. 

Where all coal is the fuel to be used with such tuyeres, they 
would be better 4" instead of G" deep as sliown, and 4" or o" 
lower. 

The next cupola we come to is that of the National Iron 
Worka, as shown, and is i)ractically a coke cupola. 



'.U)i. COMMKNTS ON CrrOLAS. 

Wlioro all coal is llio fuel nsod, Ix'ttor results wouM be 
ohlaiiicd if llic top row of four tiiycn's were lo\v('n-<l altoiit 
12", ami the liottom iron of six tiiyort-.s lowcrt'il d", ami the 
(liaincti-r (^f tiie top tuyeres made ^" less than now shown. 

The Niles Tool Works' cupola is one which sliould melt very 
fast if it had plenty of blaat, on account of its having three 
rows of tu3-crcs, or, as it might be put, three melting zones. 
The i)rinciplo in this cupola construction is one which would 
give poor results if it were carried into- the building of cupolas 
under 40" diameter: the size of this cupola, as seen, is GO" in 
diameter. The reason for failure in small sizes is the choking 
of the cupola which the small area at tuyeres in running long 
heats would cause. The cupola would of course melt rapidly, 
but its heat would be short-lived. 

The last cupola to be noticed is the "Cheney." This is 
a well-arranged cujiola for melting with coke. Its area of 
tuyeres is good and large, the construction of the wind-belt is 
one well designed, and the peep-holes seen are something most 
all cupolas should have. The height of the cupola is another 
admirable feature : this is as shown twelve feet high from bot- 
tom to the charging-door, which gives the stock ever}- chance 
to receive benetit fi'om escaping heat of the fuel. "Were this 
cupola with its diameter shown to be built expressl}- for coal, 
the tuN'eres would be better if made 4" or 5" lower than shown. 
If in any of the four cupolas as now shown, coal were to be 
used, their sand bottoms could be made 4" or i'/' deeper than if 
the}' were used in heats where coke is the fuel : this would 
practically be the same thiug as making the tuyeres lower than 
shown. 

For the purpose of aiding any who may be inclined to pat- 
tern after any of the cupolas, the measurements are giveu lus 
shown. 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 305 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 

The oxygen of the atmosphere, when combined ^\ith the car- 
bon of fuel, generates combustion : without this oxygen, carbon 
could not lie consumed. A piece of coke or coal, if immersed 
in a ladle of iron so that air could not reach it, would only 
char ; showing us that oxygen, and not heat, is the reducing 
agent or supporter of combustion. 

For everj' pound of carbon fuel contains (which on an aver- 
age for coal is placed at seventy-five to eighty per cent), 11.6 
pounds, or 152 cubic feet of air at 62°, ai"e required for its 
perfect combustion. Gases resulting from combustion of the 
carbon of coal and oxygen of the atmosphere are said to be 
of same bulk as that of atmospheric air required to furnish the 
oxygen. Taking this in connection with the amount of oxygen 
or air that escapes without combining with the carbon of the 
fuel (which is by some placed at from twenty-five to fifty per 
cent), the necessity of having to furnish more air than at the 
rate of 11.6 pounds of air per pound of carbon the fuel con- 
tains for its mechanical combustion, is at once seen. Coal 
being a much more dense fuel than coke, more pressure or 
volume of air is needed for its combustion in the workings of 
a cupola. AVhile chemically, as shown by table. \). 308 (com- 
piled from ]M]\r. Favre and Silberman, D. K. Clark, and others), 
nearly tlie same volume of air is required for the combustion of 
coke and coal, we find that practically, in the use of coal and 
coke separately in the same cupola, from one-fouith to one- 
third more air is used in the creation of a like rapid combustion 
when melting with all coal, than when all coke is used. If it is 



;]0(| III, AST AM) COMl'.rsTION. 

a fact that comI and cokr cliciiiirally n-'jiiin' nearly the saino 
\m1iiiii('s of air, tlnii lliis extra i)iie-r<)iirtli or oiie-lliinl voliiiiie 
(if air Used in iiicltiiiLT witli comI i.s lnil an .■Mlditioii to the iion- 
eoiiiliiiiiiii: oxyneii, and passes olT as llie spent piodiiel of press- 
ure. 'I'o l»e thus eoinpelled to have tlie volume iii<-rease with 

pressure, — when widl Cfnd, in nnr srnsr, more pressure tllMU 

vohime is re(piiri'd to aeeuiuplish the desired lajiidity of melt- 
h\il.> — is indeed employing a " necessar}' evil : "' for, since the 
blast is cold, it must be raised in temi)erature Itefore it ean 
enter into combustion ; and when more air than ean l>e utilized 
is forced into a cupola, extra he.at is absorbed, and therefore it 
must increase the retardins: of melting, for its influence is to 
reduce temperature. From this fact can be deduced, there is 
such a thing as delivering too much air into a cupola, a thing 
which many think eaiuiot l)e done. Combustion cannot proceed 
beyond a certain rate ; and an excessive sui)[)ly of air oidy 
causes a waste of hvixt. and an unealU'd-for destruction of the 
cujtola's lining. An insulllcient supply causes imperfect com- 
bustion. The first combination of car])on with oxygen produces 
carl>onic acid, and this, in passing up through the fuel, fre- 
quently takes up uiore carbon, and is converted into carbonic 
oxide ; which, if allowed to pass away in this state, causes con- 
sideralile loss of heat, as carbonic oxide is a combustible gas, 
and can be burnt by furnishing it with a supply of air; which, 
if it only gets as it reaches the charging-door, is then of 
course too late to be of any service. By having a requisite 
volume of air properly delivered, this carbonic oxide is much 
decreased, and therefore more carbonic acid, which is the prod- 
uct of perfect coml>ustion, created. To know when we have 
the requisite amount f)f air in our cupolas, can in every-day 
practice be l)ut approximately told. However, tiiere is much 
that might be done to help us in intelligently handling the 
supply of the recpiisite quantities of blast. When we think 
how few foundries Iheri' are that have anv idi-a of their blast 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 807 

pressure, or the volume of air used, aud secondly how few 
arrange so as to assist the pressure in deliverino; its volume 
properly into the cupola, we are not surprised at their excessive 
cost iu runuiug. A great many cupolas are constructed so that 
the tuyeres cannot be examined to see if they are working freely. 
The first thing to know is the density of the blast which the 
blower is creating, and this is easily shown by attaching a blast- 
gauge to the pipe. The second thing is to know iT the right 
volume of blast is being delivered into the cupola. Tliis can 
be told to a certain extent by a practical man, by noting the 
cupola's action ; and he may judge very closely as to its work- 
ing. In fact, it is almost the only way of telling whether or 
not a cupola is receiving its proper amount of blast ; for the 
pressure of blast in a cupola cannot be known from that gen- 
erated in the blast-pipes. The pressure in a cupola is generally 
much less than that in the blast-pipes ; and the amount of 
difference will depend upon how close the iron is charged, and 
how high and full the cupola is, and also on tuyere area for the 
passage of air into the cupola. Towards the end of a heat, 
higher pressure will generally exist in the blast-pipes than in 
the beginning. This is caused by the tendency of tuyeres to 
become "bunged up," and the accumulation of slag and dirt 
in the bed. Chilled iron mixed with fuel and slag is not always 
the only cause of " choking-up " of tuj^eres ; often clean fuel 
will lodge so close in front of tuyeres as to choke them up 
considerably. This is one of the reasons why large tu3'eres 
are often recommended, for with them the fuel has less chance 
of preventing the free delivery of the blast ; for we must not 
lose sight of the fact that fuel packed up close to the mouth of 
a tuyere acts to a degree like a damper. A good thing in 
practice is, just before the blast is put on, to bar the tu\eres 
so that whatever pieces of fuel may be "choking" them up, 
will be pushed back, and thus give the blast a good chance to 
enter ; and then b}- watching the tuyeres, and keeping them 



30« 



lil.ASr AM) COMmSTION. 



open (liirini; llic course of tlio heat, tlic rof(iiisi(f' voliunos of 
!iir cMii lie iiiKiT if:iililv :i<liiiilt<il. 



CciMr.rsTiiii.Ks. 


WtiK'liiMi.f oxyyiii 

COIIHUIIlCll )KT 

pound of Com- 
buHtiblu. 


CJii.iiilily cif All 
coiiHtiined |kt 
jioutid of Coin- 
biiHtlbk-H. 


•|nl;il lual of r,.in 
buKiloii of one 
|iiinnd of Com- 
buAlible. 


( »iic piiiiiiil wiiylil. 


round. 


r.>iiii.i. 


Cubic fl. 
at til'"' F. 

141 


liillit. 


Coke, (IcsiccaletJ, . 

Coal, average . . . 


2.r,i 

L'.4(i 


1(1.7 


14.l:;a 



That tlie pressure or density of the l)l:ist as mi'Msiired in tlie 
pipes is more or less rejiiihited \>\ the tuyere opeuiuifs. :iud 
closcneas and ivcifjht of liie charged iron, is heyond dispute. 
The conchision to bo drawn from the above would point to 
the advisability of charging iron closer for coal than for coke ; 
as, the closer tljp iron is charged, the longer should it take the 
air and gases to travel upwards, thus affording a better chance 
for the increasing of pressure or density of blast in among 
the coal, without being obliged to raise the temperature of the 
unused volume of eacapiiig air referred to in fore part of this 
chapter. The cupola may be said to be only the end of a blow- 
er's blast-pipe, and the charges of fuel and iron but a damper, 
which could be packed so close as to almost shut off the cscajw 
of the gases or blast. The more completely any blast-pipe's 
outlet is closed by means of a damper, the greater pressure 
there will be in the pipe, and the more power will be required 
to run the fan or blower. 

It is not intended by the foregoing t(» say iron and fuel 
should be charged so close as to form a damper, so that the 
gases generated liy the combustion of the fuel should not freely 
escape ; but simply to show how we can regulate pressure within 
limits. 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 



309 



The pressure of the l)l:ist used on cn[)()las ranges from three 
up to eighteen ounces. For coal, from one-fourth to one-third 
more pressui-e is required than for coke ; and for eltlier fuel, 
the larger the diameter of the cupola, the more pressure is re- 
quired. A good showing of the average pressure used upon 
different diameters of cupolas is seen in the following table, 
which is compiled from Sturtevant's experiments. 

As speed in melting is chiefly augmented by the blast, the 
cuix)la should be supplied with all the volume it is possible to 
use jyrojitahli/ ; for, the more rapid the melting, the better and 
hotter will l^e the metal produced. 



Diameter in 


Melting Capacity 


Cubic Feet 


rUESSUKE 


Inches inside 


PEPv IIOUU IN 


OF Air 


IN Ounces op 


OF Cupola. 


Pounds. 


PER minute. 


Blast. 


22 


1200 


324 


5 


20 


1000 


507 





30 


2SS0 


708 


7 


35 


4130 


1102 


8 


40 


0178 


1040 


10 


46 


8900 


2375 


12 


53 


12500 


o-j53 


14 


GO 


10500 


4410 


14 


72 


23800 


0304 


10 


&4 


33300 


8880 


10 



"The number of cubic feet of air per minute given against 
each size cupola is the result of numerous tests taken on 
cupolas. 

"The melting capacity per hour in pounds of iron is made 
up from an average of tests on a few of the best cupolas 
found, and is reliable in cases where the cupolas are well con- 
structed, and driven with the greatest force of blast given iu 
the table." — Stl'ktkvant. 



;310 yLACJUiNc; cjlt cltulas. 



SLArxGING OUT CUPOLAS. 

As sl:\<iL!;iii<T oiit enpohis is one of the most important things 
to be j)eil\)niu'd in sticcessfnliy runiiinii tiiem for hnuj heats, it 
was thought a special chapter on the subject would attract 
attention to its importance. 

"When it is rememl)ere(l, by slncrgino; out a cupola its nu'lling 
cajjacity can be about dou1)l('d, the imitortance of this matter 
in the working of cupolas at once appears. 

Slag is the result of impurities derived from the fuel, the iron, 
and tile burning-out of a cup(}la-lining. To dispose of it, many 
let it run out through the tupping-hole ; and, again,, others more 
fortunate have in the cui)ola a slag-hole for " slagging out." 

In slagging out by means of the " tapping-hole," it is some- 
times let out at almost every tap; but a better way is, if i>os- 
sible, to "keep a head" of iron in the cupola until a sullicient 
amount of slag has accumulated, and then to make a special 
tap to let it out. Having made a good-sized hole, then by 
means of the regular pressure of blast let the cupola blow out 
until all the accumulated slag is disposed of, and then stop up, 
repeating the operation as a suflicient body of slag accumulates. 
As the end of the heat approaches, the slag taps require to be 
made oftener. It may accumulate toward the end of the heat 
so that at every tap more or less slag must be let out. As a 
general thing, lK)wever, if onlinarily dean fuel and iron are 
used, "slagging out" is not conimeuced until from one-third 
to one-half of "the heat is down." This refers to what are 
termed " lu'avy heats;" for as a general thing, unless burnt 
iron or b:id fuel is used, " light heals " seldom n'(]iiiie any 
"•' slagging out." 



SLAGGING OUT CUrOLAS. 811 

By the above expression "keeping a head," is meant to 
sinipl}' not permit all the iron to run out of the cupola before 
stopping up. Slag floats upon the top of iron : therefore, by 
keeping a head of liquid iron in the cupola, the slag cannot run 
out of the tapping-hole. 

In slagging out b}' means of a regular " slag-hole," tlie tap- 
ping-hole can be kept clean. Slag-holes are simpl}' a hole about 
2" diameter made from 2" to 8" below the tuyere's bottom, as 
illustrated in many of the cupolas shown. You can allow the 
top of the slag-hole up within about one inch of the bottom of 
the tU3'eres ; if an}' nearer than this, the cold blast entering the 
cupola has a tendency to chill tlie slag, and, if your tuyere is a 
continuous one, blow it back. Should the tuyeres be such as 
have a space between them, then place the slag-hole about 
in the middle of the two tuyeres which are the farthest away 
from the tapping-hole. "When the slag commences to accu- 
mulate, the slag-hole, having been stopped up with clay, is 
" tapped," and, in some cases, is left open during the balance 
of the heat ; then the blast blowing out carries slag with it. 
In others, when slagging out through a slag-hole, opening and 
closing it is done at intervals, but before opening it the liquid 
iron is allowed to rise nearly to a level with the hole ; which 
brings the slag upon a level with the slag-hole, so that it can 
readily run out when the hole is opened. After the slag is 
nearly all out, if the metal has not risen so as to compel the 
cupola to be tapped out in order to keep the metal from running 
out of the slag-hole, the slag-hole is then stopped up, and the 
cupola tapped out. 

The height to place a slag-hole should be chiefly regulated l)y 
the class of work to be done. AVliere the metal must be car- 
ried away by small or hand ladles, the slag-hole should be 
lower than if the metnl is carried away V)y crane ladles. 

In using small ladles, it is not desiral)le to allow much of 
a head to accumulate ; whereas, with crane ladles, a body is 



812 si,.\(;(;iN(; oir citolas. 

often :ill()\v('(l (i) nccnimilulc in oitlcr lluit tapK uv.xy yield ji 
larjjjf Mnionnt cadi tinir. In liie latter Ciise. this necessity may 
arise on accdinit of waiting for :i ladle to he retiirned ; then, 
ajfain, it may lie best to liayo lar<i;(' ta|)s for the pnrpose of 
assistitiix in retaining the life of the nictal : and. thirdly, it 
fati<j;ni's the nielter nnnecessarily to he obliiicd to tap most 
every minnte, \vhen once in fifteen minutes wonld ans-.ver. 

Slag is a siil)stance whicli will cool oiT (Hiickly. Therefore, 
when passing down by tiie tuyeres, or alhtwed to remain in a. 
cnpola. it lu'comes easily chilled by the ciTects of the cold Ida.st. 
^^'hcll cliille(l. the blast cannot penetrate* tlnon<^h it. and it soon 
forms a barrier which can prevent the blast fron) entering. 
Also, as slag ciiills, more or less of the iron and fncl is incased 
by it, and this makes it more dilliciilt to deal with. 

The more lluid slag can be made, the eiusier it is to remove it 
from the ciii)ola. For this i)urpose, (luxes, which will separate 
the slag from the '"stock," and impart (Inidity to the slag, are 
used. Not only arc fluxes valuable for the aI)ove, but they 
glaze a cupola's lining, and are thus of great assistance in 
preventing the heat from cutting it. It is not necessary to 
u)entiou here the dilTerent fluxes in common use, as the reader 
will have noticed them in other parts of this work. 

Tlie amount of slag a cui)ola will create depends u[)on the 
cleanliness of the fuel, the qualit}' of iron used. etc. linrnt 
iron, in any form, is almost the worst thing that ct)uld be i)ut 
into a cupola, for it creates slag ; and to have the cu[)oht lining 
''cutout" is almost as bad, since it is composed of notliing 
but clays. There are two reasons that are the usual causes 
of cutting linings. The first is blowing with too strung u blast; 
the second, improper dduhiixj of the cupola, which greatl}' con- 
sists in i)Utliug on too much clay. NVhile the above are souie 
of the causes for the creation of slag, it migiit be well to add 
that fuel, .although it may be free of dust or dirt, creates more 
or less slag. Fuel containing a large per cent of sulphur, ash, 



SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 313 

slate, or stone, is veiy productive of slag ; and the same may 
"be said of iron which is coated with rust or sand. 

Another feature which is very essential for the success of 
long heats is keeping the tuyeres ojien. All cupolas that arc 
expected to run long heats should have some arrangement 
whereby the mclter can see the fuel, and get at it with a bar as 
soon as anj' chilling shows signs of seriously bridging around 
or above the tuyeres. Some may inquire how they are to know 
when chilling is commencing to cause serious effect. It is seen 
when the fuel commences to look Ijlack, and closed up so as to 
prevent entrance of the blast. The fuel in front of the tuyeres 
should be so open that more or less of the inner fire can be 
seen. When the fuel in front of the tuyeres commences to get 
dark and closed u\) so that the blast is prevented from enter- 
ing into the cupola, the blast should be slackened, the tuyeres 
oi)eued one by one, and the chilled material driven, with a bar, 
towards the centre of the cupola. This will give a fresh supjily 
of hot fuel for the cold blast to play upon, and the chilled 
material sent into the hot fire will be partly consumed. By 
referring to pp. 312 and o29 of vol. i., other points touching 
upon this subject will be found. It must be remembered that 
there is a limit to '• poking out " the tuyere : too much is inju- 
rious, as it causes the body of the fire in front of the tuyeres 
to be filled with material that will always have a tendency to 
deaden it. The tuj^eres should not be let go too long, nor 
should they he opened any oftener than is actually necessar}' to 
allow the blast a fair chance to get into the cupola. It would 
be better for a cupola if it could be arranged to run long heats 
without the necessity of " poking the tuyeres." The smaller 
the area of tuyeres is, the more lia1)le are they to cause 
trouble from becoming "bunged up." Having the tuyeres 
large, or plenty of them, is the best plan to adopt to avoid 
the necessity of being obliged to "poke the tuyeres" often 
during long heats. The area of tuyeres, etc., will be found 



314 



SLAUCJING OUT crroLAs. 



fully troalcd in tiio cliniilcr " Ar<;i.s of Tiiycrcs ami lUast- 
I'ijK'.s," p. 'M.'k 

Proper Jhixiug, •'^^or/ghtrf oul, and kcpj}iug the tuyeres open, is 
"• half the liattlc " in the niaiiajjcmciit of cuimjUis ; and one who 
can intrlliu:rntly ni:iiii|tnlato slajiiiing out, and keeping the tuy- 
eii'S oi)en, will get alxjut double the amount of metal out of a 
cupola, that he would if no attention wiTe paid to the above 
points. The folhnvini:; talile givt's nii approximate idea of the 
amount of iron ordinary cupolas should nirlt without slagging 
out, anil with '••slauging out." 



Inside Piameter of 
Cupola in Inches. 


Melting Cai-acity in 
Tons when not 
Slaooing out. 


Melting Catacitt in 
Tons wuen S-lagoino 

OUT. 


20 


2 


3 


25 


3 


5 


30 


4 


7 


35 


6 


10 


40 


7 


13 


45 





18 


50 


11 


23 


55 


i;j 


28 


60 


10 


35 


65 


1!) 


42 


70 


23 


50 


75 


27 


00 


80 


?,2 


70 



Note. — The aiilhor docs not wish it uiulersloo<i that cupolas could not bo made lo 
melt any raoie than shown in " slagtring out" column. The weiirht there given might 
often l>c excelled, especially in the lari^e cupolas. In fact, when properly fliixed, 
utiiggcil, and tuyere oiuiiiO , large cupolas could often l)e luadu to run lu* long aj< the 
lining would stand the cousUint heat 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES 315 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES. 

It is evident from an examination of the table upon p. 321, 
giving the ratio of the area of the tn3'ere to that of the cupola, 
that there exists a great variation in the ratio of tuyere to 
cupola area allowed in the cupola-practice of America, ranging, 
as is seen, from 4.32 to as high as 30.75 per cent. By this some 
may be led to think that most any area will do for the admit- 
tance of air to a cupola. There is no question but considerable 
difference in the per cent of tuyere area can be used with but 
little or no ill results. 

While great variation in tuyere area is admissible, some ill 
effects will undoubtedly result from an indiscriminating adop- 
tion of tuyere area. The author is far from affirming tliat there 
would be no observable difference m the working of two cupo- 
las, both same diameter and run under like conditions, but one 
having a tuyere area of only four, and the other of thirty, per 
cent of that contained in tlie cupola. 

Upon general principles, small tuyere areas cause shorter- 
lived melting than large tuyere areas. This question will be 
found discussed upon p. 320, vol. i. and p. 302, vol. ii. What 
tuyere area is the best to adopt, the reader will be better able to 
understand, after reading the pages above referred to, and a 
study of the tables and formulas at the end of this chapter. 

In taking up the question of blast-pipes, areas, etc., attention 
is first called to the table of B. F. Sturtevant's for equalizing 
the diameter of pipes (p. 316); which is very valuable, as by it 
one can readily learn the number and diameter of branch pipes 
necessary in conveying of blast from the main pipes to a cupola. 



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1 



316 



AREAS OF TUYERES ANT) IU,AST TIPES. 817 

Sturtovmit's table is one which will not only save labor in cal- 
culating areas of blast-piiies, but is valuable in other respects; 
one of which is prominently showing the retarding elTect of 
friction in the deliver}- of volumes of air through long pipes, 
and the advisahiUty of placivg blowers near to a cupola in order 
to save cost iii motive 2)^'>oer, for the cost to suppl}' motive 
power to drive air through lo)ig pipes is something worthy of 
consideration. The nearer a blower can practically' be placed 
to a cupola, the better results in every way will be produced. 

Blast-pipes should be sudiciently large to convey the required 
volume of air without undue loss by friction. The longer the 
distance air is carried, the larger in diameter should the pipes 
be. Where small conducting-pipes are used, much more power 
is necessary, as a greater velocit}' is required to discharge a 
given amount of air ; the friction being increased in the ratio 
of the square of the velocit}' with which the air moves. 

The table of Baker's (p. 318), giving the diameter of maiu 
blast-pipes, will be found a valuable companion to the Sturte- 
vant's table, in determining the areas of maiu and branch 
blast-pipes. 

"Blast-pipe should, in all cases, be air-tight. A few small 
holes often cause trouble, the blower having to be run faster to 
make up for leakage, which is only waste of power, and, as the 
pressure in the blast-pipe Increases, the escape is also in pro- 
portion : therefore it will be impossible to force through the 
furnace the requisite amount of air. Diameter of blast-pipes 
should be in proportion to the size of cupola, so that the air 
delivered may not be forced to travel faster through the pipes 
than sixty feet per second. If the pipes exceed fifty feet in 
length, their diameter should be increased somewhat (on account 
of the friction of the air in the pipes). For every additional 
fifty feet it would be well to add one inch to the diameters 
siven al)ove." — Bakku. 



;Us 



AKKAS OI- ITYKIM-.S AND P.I.AST I'lPES. 



IlAKKirs TAIILK. 

Civini; tlio Di;iii\ftir i<( .M:iiii lUast-PiiK's for all T'lipolas ransjinir from 
IS' to S4* iiisiilo (liaiiuttT. Lnii^tli of I'ipi's to Iw .'>(> feet. 



I>1A.MKTKII 


DiAMKTEU 


DiAMRTER 


Diameter 


I>IAMKTKI( 


I>IAllKTi:U 


OK 


OP 


OP 


OP 


OK 


OK 


Cupolas. 


riPE. 


Cupolas. 


Pipe. 


Cupolas. 


Pipe. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


IS 


r> 


41 


Hi 


(i;} 


17J 


1!) 


H 


42 


lU 


(A 


IS 


20 


5J 


43 


12 


0."» 


IS} 


21 


G 


44 


m 


0(5 


isi 


22 


Oi 


45 


m 


07 


18} 


23 


6i 


46 


13 


m 


19 


24 


C| 


47 


13} 


GO 


lOi 


2r> 


^ 


48 


13i 


70 


10} 


20 


n ! 


40 


13| 


71 


20 


2 1 


-1 1 


50 


14 


72 


20} 


28 


8 : 


51 


1-H 


7-! 


20i 


20 


H i 


52 


14f 


74 


20} 


30 


Si 


53 


15 


75 


21 


31 


8J 


54 


15} 


70 


2H 


32 


9 


55 


15i 


77 


21} 


33 


Oi 


50 


15| 


78 


22 


34 


9i 


57 


16 


70 


22} 


35 


9| 


58 


16} 


SO 


22i 


36 


10 


50 


lOi 


81 


22} 


37 


10^ 


00 


16| 


82 


2;? 


38 


lOf 


01 


17 


SS 


23i 


39 


1 

11 


02 


Hi 


84 


24 


40 


Hi 











To foini)l('tc tliis clinpUM-, the author will o;ivo his original 
fornuihis for tiiidiug the area of the tuyeres for dilferent diame- 
ter cupolas, etc. 

The first is the maximum area advisable, and is simi)ly to 
construct tuyeres of such area that their sum shall be tweut}'- 
five per cent of the average area of the cupola, calculated on 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES, 310 

its inside diameter. Tliis would give a 40" cupola six S^^" 
round, or a 2^" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To (ind tiie medium area of tuyere : Divide the area of the 
cupola by 9. This gives an area of tuyere of 11 ^ per cent of 
that contained in a cupola ; and gives a 40" cupola six of" 
round, or a 1^-" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To find the minimum area of tu3-ere : Divide the area of 
the cujiola by 20. This gives an area of tuyere of 5 per cent of 
that contained in a cupola ; and would give a 40" cupola six 
3|" round, or a ^" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To find tuyere areas ranging from medium up to maximum, 
the ratio would of course increase in per cent by decreasing the 
divisor. The figure 8, used for a divisor, would give 12^ per 
cent; 7 would give 14f per cent; G would give 16f per cent; 
5 would give 20 per cent. 

To find area of tuj'eres ranging from medium down to mini- 
mum, the divisoi's would of course increase from 10 up to 19. 

The 40" cupola is used ses an illustration of the different 
areas of the tu3'eres resulting from these formulas ; but if the 
first formula were emploA'ed, and the tuyeres were round, it 
would be better to increase the number of tuj^eres to seven or 
eight, as this will give a smaller diameter to each, and distribute 
the blast more evenly around the cupola, — a point worth con- 
sidering in designing a cupola. 

When, by any of the above formulas, the tuyere area is 
obtained, it will then be divided by whatever number of tuyeres 
are desired. Then, if the tuyeres are intended to be round, 
square, or flat, the dimensions of the tuyere can be readily 
found by referring to page 322, containing the areas and circum- 
fereuceS of circles and squares. Should the tuj'ere be of other 
shape, the subdivided areas would then require special figuring 
to obtain the dimensions of the form of tuyere desired. 

"With reference to which of the above formulas it is best to 
adopt, the reader is recommended to consider the conditions 



.S20 AUKAS ()!• TIYKUI-.S AND lil.ASI' I'lI'KS. 

rcforri'tl to in tlio fnrc-pHrl of this cliuitttr. and adopt tliat one 
Ik'sI snilin'4 tlic iri|iiiicnifnls »»r the intended <MiiMila. Tlie 
nic(liuni area of tnyi'iv loinid with tin- divisor 'J is the foinnila 
wliicli tiic aiitiior wniihl icconnnend for jfuiii'ial conditions and 
run of ciipohis ; and under no conditions wouhl he rocomniend 
tiie niiiiinuun tuyen' area fonnd with the divisor 20 to he used 
for (Mipohis under ;»0" diajueter. nor would he a<lvise thi' use of 
tile niaxininni area found with the divis(M' i for cu[)olas above 
'M" diameter whicli were intended to l)e run witii all coal. The 
niaxininni area will lie found to work best where all coke is 
used, and in enpohis of less than I I" diameter. 

In some cases it may he advisable to construct tuyeres from 
the first formula given, and then experiment by chjsinii and 
opeiiinp; if necessary (liy means of loose blocks or pieces of 
iron) the openings in them until the l)est results are obtained. 

The form of tuyeres is often of secondary importance to the 
question of having them of the right area, evenly divided, and 
of proper heirjht above the bottom of the cupola ; this last 
element l)eing regulated by the class of fuel used and castings 
made (points which are discussed on p. 30(S, vol. i ). 

In the first volume, a few expressions may seem, to some, not 
to fully harmonize with all that tliis volume contains upon the 
inexhaustible subject of melting iron. The trouble, if closely 
examined, will be found to be that the space there would not 
permit a full discussion of all the detiiils, and therefore the 
reader was often left to draw his own conclusions. 

As this chapter, with the exception of the following cupola 
reports, pp. .'Vi'.)-;!?;'), and melting steel, closes the sultject of 
melting, the author hopes that his continued study and expt'ii- 
ments for the two years past, since vol. i. was issued, will prove 
progressive, and give his readers data and information that will 
be of practical value in the construction and managing of 
cui)olas. 



AREAS OF CUPOLAS AND TUYERES. 



321 



TABLE OF CUrOLA AND TUYEKE AREAS, 
Showing tlio ratio of the area of tuyeres to that of the cupolas. 









Percent 








Percent 


Page. 


Cupola 
Area. 


Tuyere 
Area. 


OP 

Tuyere 
TO Cupo- 


Page. 


Cupola 
Area. 


Tuyere 
Area. 


OP 

Tuyere 
TO Cupo- 








la Area. 








la Area. 


330 


1521 


174 


11.44 


353 


661 


108 


16.34 


331 


452 


96 


21.24 


354 


1018 


100 


9.82 


332 


1521 


132 


8.67 


355 


2177 


234 


10.75 


333 


1964 


200 


10.18 


356 


707 


84 


11.88 


834 


530 


120 


22.64 


357 


1257 


152 


12.09 


33.5 


616 


84 


13.63 


358 


962 


50 


5.19 


336 


1582 


118 


7.46 


359 


491 


39 


7.94 


337 


908 


60 


6.6 


360 


908 


96 


10.57 


338 


2940 


328 


11.15 


.361 


1963* 


178* 


9.06 


339 


1810 


96 


5.3 


361 


1963 1 


225 t 


11.46 


340 


1134 


124 


10.93 


362 


855 


48 


5.61 


341 


1809 


246 


13.6 


363 


1075 


63 


5.86 


342 


1662 


144 


8.66 


364 


2290 


100 


4.37 


843 


1320 


110 


8.83 


365 


706 


39 


5.. 52 


344 


4646 


261 


5.61 


366 


1257 


202 


16.07 


34.5 


855 


73 


8.54 


367 


530 


163 


30.75 


346 


2290 


120 


5.24 


368 


2463 


150 


6.09 


347 


2290 


477 


20.83 


369 


531 


42 


7.9 


343 


1018 


188 


18.46 


370 


661 


80 


12.1 


349 


1385 


92 


6.64 


371 


707 


48 


79 


850 


1257 


72 


5.73 


372 


380 


29 


7. 63 


851 


1134 


136 


12. 


373 


804 


78 


9.7 


352 


1735 


75 


4. .32 


374 
375 


908 
415 


87 
50 


9.58 
12.04 


Illustk 


\TED CUP( 


)LAS. 


Cuyah 
Globe 


02a . 






274 
274 

278 


1256 
12.56 
1572 


184 

78 
222 


14.65 

6.21 

14.12 


-^qM. 






Pratt I 


fe Whitni 


'y • • 




Callahan & Der 


irnion . 




292 


1452 


306 


21.07 


National Work 


i . . 




294 


707 


58 


8.2 


Niles Tool AVoi 


ks . . 




296 


1810 


166 


9.17 


Chene 


V 






298 


909 


99 


10.9 


J ' * 







* Car-wheel dcp.iilnieiit. 
t Machinery duparluieut. 



AKKAS OF ( lK(Li:s AM; .SQLAUKS. 



CONTAlXIXf; THE riKCUMFEIlENCI-: AXD AIIEAS OV CIll 
CLEy; ALbO, THE AKEAS OF SQUAKES. 

AdvaJK'ini: by i" from 1" to IfK)". 





Circiim- 


Area of 


Area of 


II 


Circiim- 


Area of 


A rca of 


a 1- 


fcieucc. 


CircluB. 


Squares. 


1 ° 


fereuce. 


Circles. 


SquareH. 


1 


3.141G 


.7854 


1. 


7 


21.0012 


38.4846 


49. 


u 


3.U2T0 


1.2272 


1.5025 


n 


22.7700 


41.2826 


52.5625 


ll 


4.7124 


1.7071 


2.25 


^ 


23.5020 


44.1787 


50.25 


n 


5.4UT8 


2.4053 


3.0025 


TJ 


24.3474 


47.1731 


60.0025 


2 


0.2832 


3.1410 


4. 


8 


25.1328 


50.2050 


64, 


2i 


7.0(iS(j 


3.9701 


5.0025 


Si 


25.0182 


53.4503 


68.0625 


2i 


7.8540 


4.0087 


0.25 


8i 


20.7030 


50.7451 


72.25 


2| 


8.(;3'.)4 


5.0300 


7.5625 


S| 


27.4800 


60.1322 


70.5025 




!).4248 


7.0080 


9. 


9 


28.2744 


63.0174 


81, 


3i 


10.2102 


8.2058 


10.5025 


H 


20.0508 


67.2008 


85.. -.025 


3i 


10.'Ji).'j(5 


0.0211 


12.25 


H 


20.8452 


76.8823 


90.25 


3| 


11.7810 


11,0447 


14.0025 


9| 


30.6306 


74.0021 


95.0025 


4 


12,5004 


12.5004 


16. 


10 


31,4160 


78,54 


100. 


4i 


13.3518 


14.1803 


18.0025 


m 


32,2014 


82,5161 


105.0625 


4i 


14.1372 


15.9043 


20.25 


10^ 


32,9868 


86.5903 


110.25 


4} 


14.0220 


17.7200 


22.5625 


10| 


3;5,7722 


90,7028 


115.5025 


D 


15.7080 


19.635 


25. 


n 


34.5576 


95.03;U 


121. 


5J 


10. 4034 


21.6476 


27.5625 


lU 


35,34;]0 


99.4022 


126.5625 


5i 


17.2788 


23.7583 


80.25 


iH 


36.1284 


10.3.8691 


1.32.25 


5| 


18.0042 


25.9073 


33.0625 


iif 


36.91.3.8 


108.4;]43 


138.0025 


(5 


18.8400 


28.2744 


3(]. 


12 


37.0002 


113.098 


144. 


Gi 


10.0.3.")0 


30.(i707 


39.0025 


in 


38.484(i 


117.859 


150,0025 


Ci 


20.4204 


33.18:31 


42.25 


1-4 


39.2700 


122.719 


1.50.25 


GJ 


21.2058 


35.7848 


45.5025 


12| 


40.0554 


127.077 


102.5025 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



323 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQUARE^, — Continued. 



11 


Circum- 


Area of 


A rca of 


i'-^ 
s p 


Circuin- 


Area of 


Area of 




fereuce. 


Circles. 


S(iuarc«. 


Q ° 


fcreucc. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


13 


40.8408 


132.733 


169. 


21 


05.7936 


346.301 


441. 


m 


41.6262 


137.887 


175..5625 


2U 


66.7590 


354.657 


451.5625 


13i 


42.4116 


143.139 


182.25 


21i 


67.5444 


363.051 


462.25 • 


13| 


43.1970 


148.49 


189.0625 


21| 


08.3298 


371.543 


473.0025 


14 


43.9824 


ir)3.938 


196. 


22 


69.1152 


380.134 


484. 


14J 


44.7676 


159.485 


203.0625 


22^ 


69.9006 


388.822 


495.0625 


14i 


45.5532 


165.13 


210.25 


22i 


70.0860 


397.609 


506.25 


14| 


46.3386 


170.874 


217.5625 


22f 


71.4714 


406.494 


517.5625 


15 


47.1240 


176.715 


225. 


23 


72.2568 


415.477 


529. 


15i 


47.9094 


182.655 


2.32.5625 


23i 


73.0422 


424.558 


540.5625 


15| 


48.6948 


188.692 


240.25 


23| 


73.8276 


433.737 


552.25 


15| 


49.4802 


194.828 


248.0625 


2?4 


74.6130 


443.015 


564.0625 


16 


50.2656 


201.062 


256. 


24 


75.3984 


452.39 


576. 


m 


51.0510 


207.395 


264.0625 


m 


76.1838 


461.864 


588.0625 


1G| 


51.8364 


213.825 


272.25 


m 


76.9692 


471.436 


600.25 


16| 


52.6218 


220.354 


280.5625 


24f 


77.7546 


481.107 


612..5625 


17 


53.4072 


226.981 


289. 


25 


78.5400 


490.875 


625. 


nj 


54.1926 


233.706 


297.5625 


25i 


79.32.54 


500.742 


637.5625 


in 


54.9780 


240.529 


306.25 


25i 


80.1108 


510.706 


050.25 


171 


.55.76:34 


247.45 


315.0625 


25| 


80.8962 


520.769 


663.0625 


18 


56.5488 


2.54.47 


324. 


26 


81.6816 


530.93 


676. 


18^ 


57.3342 


261.587 


333.0625 


26^ 


82.4670 


541.19 


689.0025 


18i 


58.1196 


268.803 


342.25 


26i 


83.2524 


551.547 


702.25 


18| 


58.9056 


276.117 


351.5625 


26| 


84.0378 


562.003 


715.5025 


19 


59.6904 


283.529 


361. 


27 


84.8232 


572.557 


729. 


19i 


60.4758 


291.04 


370.5625 


27^ 


85.6086 


583.209 


742.-5625 


m 


61.2612 


298.648 


380.25 


271 


86.3940 


593.959 


750.25 


19f 


62.0466 


306.355 


390.0625 


27| 


87.1794 


604.807 


770.0625 


20 


62.8320 


314.16 


400. 


28 


87.9048 


615.754 


784. 


20i 


63.6174 


322.063 


410.0625 


28.^ 


88.7502 


626.798 


798.0625 


20^ 


64.4028 


330.064 


420.25 


28| 


89.5.356 


637.941 


812.25 


20| 


65.1882 


338.164 


430.5625 


28| 


90.3210 


649.182 


826.5625 



324 



AIIKAS OF CIUrLKS AND SQrAKKS. 



tiK(r.MrKi::;\(K and akkas ok cikci.es ; also, tmk 

AKKAS OF S(iV\nKS, —Cnnthiut'l. 



1 i 


('Ircuin- 


Arc'ii of 


Area tf^ 


■ii 


ClrtMim- 


A Pt-a of 


Area (if 


■S o 


flTLMKUf. 


Clrclo*. 


.SqimroH. 


c - 


fc-rciicu. 
110.2302 


CIrclcH. 


Bquart-H. 


2!) 


01.1004 


000.521 


841. 


37 


1075.213 


1300. 


!.'!•} 


Ol.SlUS 


071.050 


855.502 


'.r,\ 


117.0240 


10S0.702 


1387.502 


2!ti 


Il2.(i772 


68:5.404 


870.25 


37J 


117.8100 


1 104.400 


140(5.25 


21.J 


!»3. 402(3 


605.128 


885.062 


37J 


118.50.54 


1110.244 


1425.0(52 


30 


04.2480 


706.86 


900. 


38 


110.3808 


1134.118 


1444. 


30J 


05.0334 


718.09 


915.002 


38} 


120.1002 


1140.080 


1403.002 


30J 


05.81.S8 


730.018 


930.25 


38i 


120.0510 


11()4.1.50 


14^225 


30i 


90.6042 


742.(345 


945.502 


38^ 


121.7370 


1170.327 


1501.502 


31 


07.3806 


754.709 


961. 


30 


122.5224 


1194.503 


1521. 


3U 


98.1750 


700.902 


976.562 


30} 


123.3078 


1200.058 


1540.562 


3U 


08.0(584 


770.313 


992.25 


30 i 


124.0032 


1225.42 


1500.25 


31J 


00.7458 


791.732 


1008.002 


301 


124.8780 


1240.081 


1580.002 


32 


100.5312 


804.25 


1024. 


40 


125.0040 


1250.04 


1000. 


m 


101.31(i6 


810.805 


1040.002 


40} 


120.4404 


1272.307 


1020.002 


m 


102.1020 


829.579 


1050.25 


40.V 


127.2348 


1288.252 


1(>40.25 


m 


102.8S74 


842..391 


1072.502 


40^ 


128.0202 


1304.20(5 


1000.502 


33 


103.0728 


855.301 


1080. 


41 


128.8050 


1320.257 


1081. 


33J 


104.4582 


808.309 


110.5.502 


41} 


120.5010 


1330.407 


1701.502 


m 


105.2436 


881.415 


1122.25 


4U 


130.37(34 


1352.055 


1722.25 


331 


10(i.0290 


894.02 


1139.002 


41| 


131.1018 


1300.001 


1743.002 


34 


100.8144 


907.922 


1156. 


42 


131.0472 


1385.45 


1704. 


;34i 


107.5908 


921.323 


1173.002 


42} 


132.7320 


1401.09 


1785.062 


34J 


ias.3852 


934.822 


1100.25 


424 


133.5180 


1418.63 


1806.25 


34| 


100.1700 


948.42 


1207.502 


42^ 


134.3034 


14.35.37 • 


1827.562 


35 


100.0500 


002.115 


1225. 


43 


135.0888 


1452.2 


1840. 


3.H 


110.7414 


075.000 


1242.562 


43} 


135.8742 


1400.14 


1870.562 


3.-.^ 


111.52(i8 


080.8 


1200.25 


43^ 


130.0500 


1486.17 


1802.25 


3.-,| 


112.3122 


1003.70 


1278.002 


4-H 


137.4450 


1503.3 


1014.002 


3G 


113.0070 


1017.878 


120(>. 


44 


138.2308 


1520. .53 


1030. 


36i 


113.8830 


1032.005 


1314.002 


44} 


130.0158 


1537.86 


1058.002 


3tH 


114.0084 


1040.349 


i:W2.25 


44i 


130.8012 


1.5.55.29 


1080.25 


30^ 


115.45:;8 


1000.732 


13.50. .502 


44} 


140.5800 


1.572.81 


2002.. 5(52 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



325 



CIRCUMFErtEXCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQ,\J ARES, — Continued. 



? o 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


S o 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


E 2 
.2 •- 


feionce. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


5 ° 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


45 


14L3720 


1590.43 


2025. 


53 


166.5048 


2206.19 


2809. 


45i 


142.1574 


1608.16 


2047.562 


53i 


167.2902 


2227.05 


2835.562 


4H 


142.9428 


1625.97 


2070.25 


53J; 


168.0756 


2248.01 


2862.25 


45| 


143.7282 


1643.89 


2093.062 


53| 


168.8610 


2269.07 


2889.002 


4G 


144.513G 


1661.91 


2116. 


54 


109.6464 


2290.2.3 


2916. 


40^ 


145.2990 


1680.02 


2139.062 


54i 


170.4318 


2311.48 


2943.002 


4G| 


146.0844 


1G98.23 


2162.25 


541 


171.2172 


2.332.8:3 


2970.25 


4Gf 


14G.8698 


1716.54 


2185.562 


54| 


172.0026 


2354.29 


2997.562 


47 


147.6552 


1734.95 


2209. 


55 


172.7880 


2375.83 


3025. 


47^ 


148.440G 


1753.45 


2232.562 


55i 


173.5734 


2.397.48 


3052.562 


47* 


149.22G0 


1772.06 


2256.25 


551 


174.3588 


2419.23 


3080.25 


47f 


150.0114 


1790.76 


2280.062 


55| 


175.1442 


2441.07 


3108.062 


48 


150.7968 


1809.56 


2304. 


56 


175.9296 


2463.01 


3136. 


48i 


151.5822 


1828.46 


2328.062 


56i 


176.7150 


2485.05 


3164.062 


4SJ 


152.3076 


1847.46 


2352.25 


56 1 


177.5004 


2507.19 


3192.25 


48| 


153.1530 


1866.55 


2376.562 


5G| 


178.28.58 


2529.43 


3220.562 


49 


153.9384 


1885.75 


2401. 


57 


179.0712 


2.551.76 


3249. 


49i 


154.7238 


1905.04 


2425.562 


57i 


179.8566 


2574.2 


3277.562 


41)i 


155,5092 


1924.43 


2450.25 


57j 


180.6420 


2596.73 


3306.25 


49| 


156.2946 


1943.91 


2475.002 




181.4274 


2619.36 


3335.062 


50 


157.0800 


1963.5 


2500. 


58 


182.2128 


2642.09 


3364. 


50i 


157.8654 


1983.18 


2525.062 


58J 


182.9982 


2664.91 


3393.062 


50^ 


158.6508 


2002.07 


2550.25 


58J 


183.7836 


2687.84 


3422.25 


50| 


159.4362 


2022.85 


2575.562 


58| 


184. .5690 


2710.86 


3451..502 


51 


160.2216 


2042.83 


2G01. 


59 


185.3.544 


27.33.98 


3481. 


5U 


161.0070 


2002.9 


2026.562 


59J 


186.1398 


2757.2 


3510..5G2 


oH 


161.7924 


2083.08 


2652.25 


59| 


186.92.52 


2780.51 


3.540.25 


51| 


162.5778 


2103.35 


2678.062 


59f 


187.7106 


2803.93 


3570.062 


52 


163.3632 


2123.72 


2704. 


60 


188.4960 


2827.44' 


3600. 


52J 


164.1486 


2144.19 


2730.062 


GOJ 


189.2814 


2851.05 


3630.062 


52i 


164.9340 


2164.76 


2756.25 


G0| 


189.0668 


2874.76 


3660.25 


52f 


165.7194 


2185.42 


2782.562 


60| 


190.8522 


2898.57 


3690.502 



;-jti 



AKKAS or ClltCl.IS AM» SQIAKKS. 



CIKCrMFKItKNCK AX!) Ai:KAS OF CIUfLES ; ALSO, TliK 

AicKAs OK s(^rAi;Ks, — r„;i/;/,,(c,/. 



1 s 


("Ircum- 


Area of 


y\r<'ii of 


o 5 


('irciim- 


Area of 


Area of 




fercncu. 


ClrclcH. 


Squuruii. 


ft o 


fcreiicv. 


Circles. 


BquarcH. 


Gl 


101.6370 


2922.47 


3721. 


09 


216.7704 


37:39.29 


4761. 


cu 


192.4230 


294(5.48 


3751.502 


(59} 


217.55.58 


37(5(5.43 


4795..562 


Oli 


193.2084 


2970.58 


3782.25 


09J 


218.3412 


3793.08 


4}S;30.25 


61| 


193.9938 


2994.78 


:J813.002 


G9J 


219.1206 


3821.02 


4S65.(J62 


(52 


194.7792 


3019.08 


3a44. 


70 


219.9120 


3S48.46 


4900. 


02J 


195.5646 


3043.47 


3875.002 


70} 


220.6974 


3876 


49:35.0(52 


62i 


196.3500 


30(57.97 


3900.25 


70 i 


221.4828 


3[K)3.03 


4970.25 


62J 


197.1354 


30!)2.5G 


3937.502 


70J 


222.2(582 


3931.37 


5005..562 


63 


197.9208 


3117.25 


3909. 


71 


223.0536 


3959.2 


5041. 


6:H 


198.7062 


3142.04 


4000.502 


71} 


223.8;J90 


3987.13 


507<5.502 


caj 


199.4910 


316().93 


4032.25 


in 


224.6244 


4015.10 


5112.25 


6:]| 


200.2770 


3191.91 


4004.002 


71| 


225.4098 


404:5.29 


5148.002 


04 


201.0024 


3217 


4096. 


72 


226.1952 


4071.51 


5184. 


Wl 


201.8478 


3242.18 


412S.0(]2 


72} 


220.980(5 


4099.84 


5220.002 


64^ 


202.0332 


32(57.40 


4160.25 


72i 


227.7(500 


4128.20 


52.50.25 


64J 


203.4180 


3202.84 


4192.562 


72| 


228..5514 


41.50.78 


5292.562 


65 


204.2040 


3:318.31 


4225. 


73 


229.3.308 


4185.4 


5329. 


65} 


204.9894 


3343.89 


4257.562 


73} 


230.1222 


4214.11 


5:3(35.562 


65i 


205.7748 


33(39. .50 


4290.25 


v>\ 


2:30.9076 


4242.93 


.5402.25 


65f 


200.5002 


3395.33 


4323.062 


m 


231.69:30 


4271.84 


5439.062 


()(i 


207.345(i 


3421.2 


4356. 


74 


232.4784 


4300.85 


5470. 


60} 


208.1310 


3447. 17 


4389.002 


■74} 


233.2638 


4329.90 


5513.002 


66^ 


208.9104 


3473.24 


4422.25 


74i 


234.0492 


4:!59.17 


5550.25 


6(iJ 


209.7018 


3499.4 


44.55.502 


74J 


2:34. 8:U6 


4:588.47 


.5587.502 


67 


210.4872 


3525.60 


4489. 


75 


2:35.6200 


4417.87 


5(525. 


67i 


211.2726 


3552.02 


4522.502 


75} 


236.4054 


4447.:38 


5(502.5(52 


67^ 


212.0580 


a578.48 


4.5.50.25 


75^ 


2:37.1908 


447(5.98 


5700.25 


G7f 


212.84.34 


3005.04 


4590.062 


75J 


237.9762 


450(5.07 


57:38.062 


68 


213.0288 


3031.(59 


4(524. 


70 


238.7610 


4530.47 


5770. 


GS\ 


214.4142 


3058.44 


4658.062 


70} 


2:39.5470 


45(50. ;30 


.5814.002 


68i 


215.1990 


3085.29 


4(592.25 


70J 


240.:3324 


4590.;30 


58r)2.25 


68| 


215.9850 


3712.24 


472(5.562 


76| 


241.1178 


402(5.45 


58iX).562 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



327 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF aqu Aims, — Continued. 



1 § 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


S § 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


E 2 

5 ° 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


S u 
a J. 

C ° 
85 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


11 


241.9032 


4656.64 


5929. 


267.0360 


5674.51 


7225. 


m 


242.6886 


4686.92 


5967.562 


85i 


267.8214 


5707.94 


7267.562 


rii 


243.4740 


4717.31 


6006.25 


85^ 


268.0068 


5741.47 


7310.25 


771 


244.2594 


4747.79 


6045.062 


S5f 


269.3922 


5775.1 


7353.062 


78 


245.0448 


4778.37 


60S4. 


86 


270.1776 


5808.82 


7396. 


78i 


245.8302 


4809.05 


0123.062 


86i 


270.9630 


5842.64 


7439.062 


78^ 


246.6156 


4839.83 


6162.25 


86 1 


271.7484 


5876.56 


7482.25 


78| 


247.4010 


4870.71 


6201.562 


86| 


272.5338 


5910.58 


7525.562 


79 


248.1864 


4901.68 


6241. 


87 


273.3192 


5944.09 


7569. 


79i 


248.9718 


4932.75 


6280.562 


87i 


274.1046 


5978.91 


7612.562 


71)^ 


249.7572 


4963.92 


6320.25 


Slh 


274.8900 


0013.22 


7656.25 


79f 


250.5426 


4995.19 


6360.062 


S7| 


275.0754 


6047.03 


7700.062 


80 


251.3280 


5026.56 


6400. 


88 


276.4608 


0082.14 


7744. 


80i 


252.1134 


5058.03 


6440.062 


88^ 


277.2462 


6116.74 


7788.002 


80| 


252.8988 


5089.59 


6480.25 


881 


278.0316 


6151.45 


7832.25 


80| 


253.6842 


5121.25 


6520.562 


8S| 


278.8170 


6186.25 


7876.502 


81 


254.4696 


5153.01 


6561. 


89 


279.0024 


6221.15 


7921. 


81i 


255.2550 


5184.87 


6601.562 


89\ 


280.3878 


6256.15 


7965.562 


8H 


2.56.0404 


5216.82 


6642.25 


89^ 


281.1732 


6291.25 


8010.25 


81| 


256.82.58 


5248.88 


6683.002 


89f 


281.9586 


6326.45 


8055.002 


82 


257.6112 


5281.03 


6724. 


90 


282.7440 


6361.74 


8100. 


82i 


258.3966 


5313.28 


6765.062 


90i 


283.5294 


6397.13 


8145.002 


S2h 


259.1820 


5345.63 


6806.25 


90i 


284.3148 


6432.62 


8190.25 


82} 


259.9674 


5378.08 


6847.562 


90f 


285.1002 


6468.21 


8235.562 


8a 


260.7528 


5410.62 


6889. 


91 


285.8856 


6503.9 


8281. 


8;H 


201.5382 


5443.26 


6930.562 


9U 


286.6710 


6539.68 


8326.562 


8;3i 


262.-3236 


5476.01 


6972.25 


91i 


287.4564 


6575.56 


8372.25 


831 


263.1090 


5508.84 


7014.062 


91| 


288.2418 


6611.55 


8418.002 


84 


263.8944 


5541.78 


7056. 


92 


289.0272 


6647.63 


8464. 


84i 


264.6798 


5574.82 


7098.002 


92} 


289.8125 


6083.8 


8510.062 


84^ 


265.4652 


5607.95 


7140.25 


92i 


290.5980 


6720.08 


8556.25 


84| 


266.2506 


5641.18 


7182.562 


92| 


291.3834 


0756.45 


8002.562 



]-2H 



AKKAS OK CIItCl.KS AM) SQl'AUKS. 



Cinr'T-MFERKXCK AXD AREAS OF CIRCLES; ALSO, THE 
AKKAS (»K sgl'A RES, — r'.y,,. ■/(«/../. 



t § ' CIrciini- 


A roil of 


Arcii of 


« g 


circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


- O 


furcnce. 


CircloH. 


SiinuruH. 


S I. 

G ° 


ference. 


ClrclcH. 


BquurcM. 


03 


202.1688 


6702.02 


8640. 


96J 


303.9408 


7351.79 


9300.502 


o:H 


202.0542 


0820.40 


8005.502 


07 


304.7352 


7.380.8:3 


9409. 


mi 


203.7300 


6866.16 


8742.25 


07} 


305.5206 


7427.97 


94.57.562 


o;}j 


204. .53.50 


6002.03 


8780.002 


07J 


306.3000 


7400.21 


9.506.25 


04 


205.3104 


6030.70 


88:36. 


07f 


307.0014 


7504.55 


9555.002 


04} 


200.0058 


6076.76 


8883.0<)2 


98 


307.8708 


7542.08 


9004. 


04 i 


206.8812 


7013.82 


80.30.25 


08} 


308.0(522 


7581. .52 


90.53.002 


04J 207.6000 


7050.08 


8077.562 


98^ 


.300.4476 


7020.15 


9702.25 


05 


208.4520 


7088.23 


0025. 


98| 


310.2330 


76.58.88 


0751.. 562 


onj 


200.2374 


71 25.. 50 


0072.562 


99 


311.0184 


7007.71 


9801. 


o-H 


300.()22S 


7163.04 


0120.25 


99} 


311.8038 


7730.0;3 


98.50. .562 


or)| 


300.8082 


7200.6 


9168.002 


99^ 


312..5802 


7775.06 


9000.25 


06 


301. .5036 


7238.25 


0216. 


99| 


313..3740 


7814.78 


90.50.062 


00} 


302.3700 


7275.00 


9264.002 


100 


314.1600 


7^54. 


10000. 


OO.i '80.3.1044 


7313.84 


0312.25 











Not only are the above taljles of areas for circle.s and squares 
useful for the purpose referred to on p. 310, Init also in fijiuring 
weights of castings ; for in the case of desired iveiijhts for sfjnare 
or round j)late)i not to he found in vol. i., referring to the aliove 
table will save the necessity of first figuring to obtain tluir 
areas before they can be multiplied by the weight of a cubic 
inch of iron as seen iu vol. i. pp. 37U, 376. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA TRACTICE. 



The following fortj'-six reports of cupola-workings have been 
carefully collected by the author from thirty States, reaching 
from Maine to Oregon. The reports will not only be found 
interesting, but very valuable to consult ; giving, as they do, 
so many different men's ideas and practice in mixing and melt- 
ing iron. In selecting the firms shown, those were chosen that 
the author thought used intelligence and system iu their prac- 
tice. These reports the author believes to be a practical 
account of the cupola- workings of the respective firms. 

Each firm's name, and the line of castings made, are given 
solely for the purpose of attaching authority' to the reports, 
and to enable foundryraen to classify the workings with their 
own or intended class of work or castings. 

In collecting the reports shown, the author would state that 
considerable stress was laid upon obtaining some knowledge of 
the fluidity of the iron melted. I believe the questions were 
conscientiously answered as far as such a thing could practi- 
cally be done. The XXX shown stands for what shops gen- 
erally term " good hot fluid iron ; " the XX stands for a medium 
fluid iron, such as is often suitable for pouring ordinary thick- 
nesses of machinery castings. 

When collecting the reports, the length, etc., of blast-pipes 
was also ol)tained. Only such portions are mentioned as were 
thought to be of service in giving ideas, etc. ; since, to publish 
all the bends and different crooks, etc., would only be adding 
confusion to the reports. 

The reports as shown argue well for the kind and lil)eral 
spirit of American foundrymen, iii letting their experience and 
practice be known ; and, no doul^t, many will feel that they 
shouhl be credited for their liberality shown. In this the author 
hearlilv coincides. sua 



:VM) 



AMIKKAN (TI'OI.A I'ltACTICK. 



PORTLAND, ME. 
COMMON 44" CUrOLA. 

Otitsiilo (lininctor .M" 

Tliickiipss of lining .%" 

Inside diiiinetfT at tuyeres ."'.T" 

Ijiir;^est iiisiile or lucdtiiij^-point diameter 4ii" 

Inside diameter at eiiar;;in;i-d()()r 44" 

Height from bottom |)lar<Mi|) ti) l)ottnm of cliarKing-door lO* 

Style of tuyeres: fiat, \h" opmnujx, continuous tuyere. 

llei^^lit from bottom jdati^ to bottom of tuyere 14" 

Ileifjht of tuyere aboV(! sanil bottom oil baek side 8" 

A wind-belt, 10" X 10", from which the blast is delivered to the tuyeres, 
encircles the cupola about one-third its circumference. 



Fuel used for bed: coal 
First charj^e of i)ig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coal . . 

Second charge of pij? . 

" " scrap 



l,r,00 lbs. I Second charfjo of coal . . ."WlO lbs. 

2.000 " Third charge of pi;,' . . . I,.'i00 " 

2,.")(X) " " " scrap . . 2,fX)0 " 

4(X) " " " coal . . 2.".0 " 

1,500 " Fourth charge of pig . . 1,000 " 

2,000 " " " scrap . 1,.J00 " 



No. G Sturtovaut fan: diameter main blast-pipe, 10". Three cupolas are 
connected to this main [npa. 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 .v.m. 
" charging lirst iron, 1.00 p.:\i. 
Bliist put on oA') ■' 

Ilevolutions of blower, 2,200. Kind of fuel used, lied-lump bard coal 



First ai»pcaranc(! of liuid 

iron ."..."> V.M. 

Dottom dropped .... .".45 " 



Amount of iron melted, 14,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,250 " 
Katio of fuel to iron used, 1 to GyS'u- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 2 hours. 



Remarks. - 
described. "W 
as the above ; 
distance from 
three tons per 
pipe. 

Our. iron is 
jobbing castiu; 



0( T. 2:5, 1SS3. 



-The above heat presents an average working of the cupola 
e have two other cupolas, one of which is of same diameter 
the other is M" inside diameter, having four tuyeres 8" X 3"; 
bottom plate to bottom of tuyere, 14". This cupola will melt 
hour. The three cupolas are all fed by the same IG" blast- 

mcltcd for making locomotives, marine, arcliitectural, an<l 

CHARLES n. CARRUTHERS, 

Furcmun rortUtiul Locomotive Co.'s Works Foundry. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA TRACTICE. 331 

PORTSMOUTH, N.H. 

COMMON 24" CUPOLA. 

Outsiilo diameter 36" 

Tliickness of lining 7^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 24" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 24" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 21" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of eharging-door 8' 3" 

Style of tuyeres: four 8" X 3" rectangular tuyeres. 

Heiglit from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 10" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 



Fuel used for bed: coal . 400 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 500 " 

" " coal ... 40 " 

Second charge of pig . . 1,000 " 



Second charge of coal . . 40 lbs. 

Third charge of scrap . . 500 " 

" coal . . 20 " 

Fourth charge of scrap . 1,150 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant; diameter main blast-]iipe, 10". Cupola to blower, 130'; 
six elbows before it enters cupola. 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" cliarging first iron, 1.30 p.m. 
Blast put on 2.33 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.42 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 3.40 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,700. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 3,150 lbs. | Ratio of fuel to iron used, I to G[\-. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 500 " I Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 

Remarks. — The work made is general jobbing castings. 

JOSEPH ^V. HUSE, 
Foreman Portsmouth Machine C'o.'s Works Foundry. 
Dec. 12, 1883. 



:i: 



AMKKK'AN cri'OI.A I'l; AC'IICR. 



BOSTON, MASS. 
roLLIAC II" CL1'(JLA. 

Outside (lianiotor 

Tliicknii.ss of liiiiii;^ 

Inside tliaiiielur at tuycifs 

Larj^est inside or incitin;;-|i()iiit <liaiu<itLT . . . . 

Inside diainefcr at cliar^jing-door 

Hi-ijilit from bottom plati! u|) to bottom of cliar^infj-door 

Style of tuyeres: two rows of tuyer<;s, six above and six below; 

bottom row, 5" x ;{"; top row, '.'>" diameter. 
Ileiflbt frouj bottom plate to boll(^im of lower tuyi^re, 'JO"; to uiiper 

tiiv(!re 



Ileij^ht of lower tuyere aViove sand bottom on back sid 
Ileijjlit from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole . . 

Fuel used for bed: coke 

First charge of iron . . 

" " coke. . 

Second charge of iron . 



" " coke 

Third charge of iron 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of iron 



1,400 lbs. 

4,000 " 

2(i0 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 



Fourth charge of coke 
P'ifth charge of iron . 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of iron . 

" " c(jke 

Seventh charge of iron 
" " coke 

Eighth charge of iron , 



01" 
Hi" 
44" 
4t;" 
44" 
IJ' 



:\'y' 



14" 

IS" 



2(X) lbs. 
2,500 

2(iO 
2,.-)00 

2(W 
2,500 

aw 

2,500 



Eight more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-i)ii)e, 12 
blower. 



Cupola 22' from 



Time of starting fire 

" charging first iron, 1.00 p.m 
Bla.st put on 2.40 " 



12.00 A.M. First appearance of fluid 

iron 2. .55 v.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 7.05 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Pressure of blast, (\\ ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Coniudlsville coke. Kind of llux used, limestone. 



Amount of iron melted . 41.500 lbs. 
Amfiunt of fu(d consumed, 5,o00 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7 nnf. 



Fluidity of nielle.l iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 4li. 25m. 



Remarks. — Our iron is poured into architectural and light house-work 
moulds. The last of the iron was just as hot as the first of tho heat. We 
use limestone on every charge. After easting five t<nis, we let out the slag, 
and very seldom close the slag-hole after it is opened. 

JOHN FAURER. 
Foreman (J. W. tt F. Smith's Iron Works Foundry. 
M.vnru 20, lS8t. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



333 



HOLYOKE, MASS. 

COMMON 50" CUI'OLA. 

Outside diameter fiu" 

Thickness of lining 7^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres no" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 50" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 50" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door .... 1'2' L>" 
Style of tuyer(!s: five tuyeres, iO" X 5", at inside; 7" x 5" where it joins 
the blast-i)ipes. 

Height from bottom plate to l)ottom of tuyere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 10" 



Fuel used for bed : coal 


. 1,800 lbs. 


Fourth charge of scrap 


First charge of pig . 


. 3,000 " 


" " coal 


" " scrap 


. 2,500 " 


Fifth charge of pig . 


" " coal . 


. 400 " 


" " scrap 


Second charge of pig 


. 2,500 " 


" " coal . 


" " scrap 


. 1,500 " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


" " coal 


. 400 " 


" " scrap 


Third cliarge of pig . 


. 4,500 " 


" " coal . 


" " coal. 


. 400 " 


Seventh charge of scraj 


Fourth charge of pig 


. 3,000 " 





1,500 lbs. 

400 " 

2,200 " 

1,800 " 

400 " 

500 " 

4,000 " 

400 " 

4,000 " 



No. 5^ Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, IG". 
First appearance of fluid 



Time of starting fire . . 12.30 p.m 

" charging first iron, 2.00 " 
Blast put on 3.15 " 



iron 3.30 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... (i.OO " 



Amount of iron melted, 31,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 4,200 " 
Ratio of fuel to irou used, 1 to 7 1'lfii- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 45m. 



Remarks. — Our iron is used for turbine-wheels and mill-machinery 
castings. 

W. S. BEECHING, 
Foreman JJolyoke Machine Co.'s Works Foundry. 
Oct. 23, 18S0. 



.•304 



ami:rican cri'oi.A iKAciifi;. 



WORCESTER, MASS. 

COMJAIJ 2t!" CUPOLA. 

Onfsido (li.imctor ... VI" 

Tliickncss of liiiiiis 8" 

Inside diamoter at tnynrcs 2(i" 

Larf^ost inside or ineltiiij^-jioint (liiiiinicr IMj" 

Inside diameter at charsin^i-door W 

lleiglit from bottom plate up to bottom of cliarfjing-<lof)r 9' 2" 

Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above ami six Ijelow. 

Lower row, 4" square; upper row, \:{" diameter. 

Ileifibt from l)ottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere 22" 



Heiglit of lower tuyere above sand bottom on back side , . 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-liole .... 

Third charge of coke • 

Fourth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 


noo lbs 


First charge of pig . . . 


1,100 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" " coke . . 


60 " 


Second charge of jiig . . 


GOO " 


" " scrap . 


GOO " 


" " coke. . 


GO " 


Third charge of pig . . . 


GOO " 


" " siTap . . 


GOO " 



Fifth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

Sixth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

No. C^ Sturtcvant fan; diamctcn- main blast-jiipe, 10'' 



. . 1«" 

. . 18" 

no lbs. 

(KX) " 

GOO " 

GO " 

GOO " 

GOO " 

60 " 

900 " 

800 " 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.30 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.1." 

Bottom dropped .... Ti-iU) 



Revolutions of blower, 2,000 to 2,100. Pressure of blast, 5 ounces. 
Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, limi;stone, ono 
shovelful to a charge ; but air-slacked lime, or chips from marble-works, 
are just as good as lime to make the slag fluid and easily discharged. 

TOT.ALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 8,000 lbs. | Fluidity of molted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 800 " i Length of heat, Ih. .".Om. 
Batio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 10. | 

Bem.vrks. — This is a heat taken out of our small cupola. Considering 
the smallness of heat, the showing is not as good as were the heat larger. 
The cupola can be kejit in blast as long as one might desire. Our iron is 
hot enough for stove-plate, although we use it for machinery castings. 

J. B. COLVIN, ^ui>t., 
J. A. Cvlviii Works Foundry. 
Kkh. 1, 1S84. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 335 

SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 

COLLI AU 28" CUPOLA 

Outside diameter 42" 

Thickness of lining ... .- 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 28" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 30" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 28" 

Height from bottom jilate up to bottom of charging-door . . , . 9' 6" 
Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above and six below. 
Lower row, oh" square; upper row, 1^" diameter. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere 22" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 14" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole „ . 15" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 500 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 1,.500 " 
" " scrap . . 500 " 
" " coke . . IKJ " 

Second charge of pig . . 1,500 " 



Second charge of scrap . 800 lbs. 

coke . , IIG " 

Third charge of pig . . . 700 " 

" " scrap . . 1,881 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 8". 



Time of starting fire . . 3.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 4.40 " 
Blast put on 5.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 
iron ........ 5.15 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6,15 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,150. Pressure of blast, 6 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,881 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 7.32 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to D^. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX 
Length of heat, Ih. 15m. 



Remarks. — Fifty-five pounds of coke was saved from dropped bottom; 
therefore the ratio of fuel to iron actually consumed would be 1 to 10|'ij"if' 
This heat was an exceptional one for its size. "With a heat of five tons we 
can melt 1 to 10 or 11 with ease. We use our iron for machinery and light 
castings. 

JAMES SIMPSON. 
Foi'cman iSiJviiujjidd Foundry Co. 

iUv 1, 1SS3. 



IVM', 



AMI'.UIfAN niol.V rKA( IICK. 



PROVIDENCE, R.I. 
MACKENZIE ;«" x n:!" fll'OLA. 

Outside (limonsions C2"xOf/' 

Tliickii.'ss of lining V,f," 

Insidu (liinciisions at tuyori'S ."JO" x 44" 

Largest inside or iuoltin;^-|i(iiiit W x r>:i" 

Inside diiiu-nsioiis at fharj^iiiK-door 40" XM" 

Iloiglit frniu bottom [ilate up to Ijottom of charginp-door . . . 11' G" 
Style of tuyeres: flat 1" opiMiiiig, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere I'j" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 



FiU'l used for bed : coal . 


.1,100 11)3 


First charge of pig . . . 


1,100 " 


" " scrap . . 


(JOO " 


coal . . . 


200 " 


Second charge of jiig . . 


1,400 " 


" " scrap 


(iOO " 


" " coal . . 


200 " 


Third charge of pig . . . 


1,400 " 


" " scrap . . 


(JOO " 


No. 4J Bak 


or; diame 


Time of starting fire . . 


1.20 r.M 


" cliarging first iron, 


3.00 " 


Blast put ou 


4.00 " 



llevohitions of blower, 
used, Lehigh coal. Kiud 



Third charge of conl . . 200 Ib.s. 

Fourth charge of pig . . 1,4(X) " 

" " s<jrap . (JOCJ " 

" coal . . 200 " 

Fifth charge of pig . . . ],40<) " 

" " scrap . . (XW " 

" " coal. . . 200 " 

Si.Kth charge of pig . . . 1,400 " 

" " scrap . . (iOO " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.1." i-.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.25 " 

140. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kiud of fuel 
of tlux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 12,000 lbs. 
Ainnuut of fuel consumed, 2,100 " 
llatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 5|Vt). 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 2.jui. 



Remarks. — We make sowing-machines, light machine tools, and cast- 
ings weighing from oue ounce up to one ton. Our iron must be good and 
very hot. 

MATTHEW WIARD, 
Foreman Brown & ^harpc Works Foundry. 
Nov. 15, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



337 



WETHERSFIELD, CONN. 

COMMON 33" CUPOLA. 

Outsule diameter 40" 

Thickiu'ss of lining 3^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 33" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 35'' 

Inside diameter at charging-door 33" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres: ten §"X <4" flat tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 8" 

Height of tuvere above sand bottom ou back side 3" 



Fuel usi'd for bed: coke 


300 lbs. 


Second charge of coke 


. 100 lbs 


coal 


400 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 500 " 


First charge of pig . . . 


1,500 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,000 " 


" " scrap . . 


1,000 " 


" " coke . 


. 125 " 


" " coke . . 


100 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 1,000 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


700 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,'JOO " 


" " scrap . 


800 " 







No. G Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10'' 



Time of starting fire . • 1.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.30 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 

Pressure of blast, 14 ounces. Kind of fuel used, Old Company's Lehigh 
lump and Conuellsville coke. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 

Bottom dropped .... 



3.36 P.M. 
4.18 " 



Amount of iron melted, 8,400 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,025 " 
Pvatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to SfuV 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 48 minutes. 



Remarks. — Fine light-gray iron castings is the class of work which we 
make. Our cupola was designed and built by the undersigned in jNIarch, 
1883. Every heat, from the start, has given the highest possible fluidity. 
"\Ve never plug or tap. The second full hand ladle up to the last dribblings 
must run any of our fine light castings, among which we have a plain 
plate 13" X IS", To" thick. Speed in melting from first iron to last, five net 
tons per hour. Highest si)eed per minute, 250 pounds; this per hour 7^ 
net tons. 

JOHN HOPSON, Jr., 
President and Treasurer Jlopson <k Vhapiti Marmj'acturinfj Co. 
Oct. 18, 1883. 



338 



AMERICAN ('uror,A rUACTICi;. 



NEW-YORK CITY. 
MACKENZIE 78"X4>>" CLTOLA. 

Outside dimensions 

Insiile dimensions at tuyeres 

I^!ir;;est inside or ineltinf?-iH)int iliniensinns 

Inside dimensions at <liar;^iny-door 

Ilei^jht from bottom plate uf) to Ixjttom of eliarf(in;{-«loor 
Style of tuyeres: Hat, IJ" openiuf^, continuous tuyere. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tujx-re . . . . 
Height of tu^'ere al)ovc sand bottom on back side . . . 

Fuel used for bed: coke 

coal 

First charge of pig . . . .'>,(i(Mi 

" " scrap . . 7,5()0 

. . 500 

. . 400 

2,500 

5,000 

500 

300 

2,000 

5,000 

500 

oOO 



fiOO lbs. 
:,(XI0 " 



" " coke 

" " coal . . 

Second charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 

" " coal . 

Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

" " coal . 



Fourth charge of pig . 

" " scrajt 

coke. 

" " coal . 

Fifth cliargc of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

" " coal. . 

Sixth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

" " coal . 

Seventh charge of pig . 

" " scrap 



No. G Mackenzie blower. 

First ajipcarancc of fluid 



Time of starting fire . . 12. .30 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.<X) " 

Blast put on .'5.00 " 

Revolutions of blower, 100. Pressure of blast, column of water 



88" X or," 
w X :«;" 

7H" X 48" 
78" X 4«" 

y 

14" 

10" 

i,.%oon)s. 

4,.'VX) " 

500 " 

^100 " 

1,500 " 

4,(JtX) " 

500 " 

300 " 

1,500 " 

4,000 " 

500 " 

300 " 

1,5(X) " 

4,000 " 



o. 10 P.M. 
20" high. 



Amount of iron melted, 
Amount of fuel consumed, 7,500 



TOTALS. 

48,100 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to G,^, 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 



Rem.\rks. — The scrap we use is A No. 1. All things being favorable, 
and a large crane ladle under the cupola, we can melt ciglit tons per liour. 
When small ladles are used, the blast requires to be gr<'atly deereased, in 
order to have the iron taken care of. This cui)ola is capalile of melting 
thirty tons, "We liave another whose capacity is twenty-four tons. We 
charge so as to have our iron h<>t. Our class of work is all kinds of engines, 
pumps, and machinery castings. 

FREDERICK SIBLEY, 

Furcmait, Ddamatcr's Iron }y\»ks Fhiindi-y. 
h'EU. 15, lSb4. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



339 



YONKERS, N.Y. 
ODD STYLE OF CUPOLA. 

Largest outside diameter 70" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or meltiug-point diameter 48" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 60" 

Heiglit from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres : two 4" X 12" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere , 16" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 

Two 10" diameter by 5' long branch pipes convey the blast from the 
main pipe to the tuyeres. 

Fuel used for bed: coal . 1,100 lbs. 

First charge of jiig . . . 4,000 " 

" " scrap . . 1,000 " 

coal. . . 400 " 

Second charge of pig . . 3,000 " 

" " scrap . 1,000 " 

No. 6 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blas1>pipe, 16"; length, 30'. 



Second charge of coal . 
Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coal . 

Fourth charge of scrap 



400 lbs. 
3,000 " 
1,000 " 

300 " 
2,800 " 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 3.15 " 

Blast put on 3.45 " 

Revolutions of blower, 2,200. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal 
flux used, oyster-shell, at the rate of one peck to one ton of iron. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.53 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.35 " 

Kind of 



Amount of iron melted, 15,800 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,200 " Length of heat, 2h. 50m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7yo%- 

Remarks. — The class of work made is elevators, gas-engines, and 
machinery castings. This cupola, in vertical appearance, is somewhat 
like that of a bulged barrel. 4" above the tuj-^eres it starts a taper that, in 
the height of 36", increases from 30" to GO" inside diameter. This 60" con- 
tinues in height for 36" more; at this point it then commences to decrease, 
and 36" higher up it is again the same diameter as at the tuyeres; this point 
being at stack, the 30" diameter is continued up to end of same. This 
style of cupola is not to be recommended as a success for long heats, and I 
would give a common straight cupula the preference. 

L. C. JEWETT, 

Foreman Otis Brothers & C'o.'s Works Foundry. 
Dec. 15, 1883. 



;;4<> 



AMKUICAN (M'pol.A I'KACTKK. 



SYRACUSE, N.Y. 

COMMON 40" C'l'I'OLA. 

Ontsido (liamotor ^'■'•" 

Tliickiifss of liiiinjT s\" 

Iiisidi! (liain(!tor at tuyorcs •n" 

l^arj,'fst insido or lUfltiiif^-pniiit (liaiiictcr 4_'" 

Inside (liainotcr at cliarf?iii!^-iloor ."-'i" 

Hci;:lit from bottom plate lip t(j bottom of cliarging-door '.»' 

Style of tuyeres: four (I" x (i" triangular tuyeres. 

J leiglit from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 11" 

lloii'lit of tuvere above saud bottom on back side b" 



Fuel used for bed: coal 


. 1,050 lbs. 


Second charge of i)ig . 


. 2,700 Ib.s 


First charge of pig . . 


3,000 " 


" " .sera]) * 


IKJO " 


" " scrap . 


1,000 " 


" " coal . 


•JOO " 


" " coal . . 


400 " 


Third charge of scrap . 


. 2,o00 " 



No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12'' 



Time of starting fire . . 1..".0 p.m. 

" charging lirst iron, ;>.:i0 " 
Blast put ou 4.20 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.27 p.m. 

Bottom drojiped .... r>.j') " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Kind of fuel used, Lebigb coal. Kind of 
flux used, tluor spar. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, *),nOO lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,650 " 
Katio of fuel to iron used, 1 to G. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of boat, lb. 35m. 



E.KMARKS. — The class of work made is for stationary engines. The 
heat is a small one for the cupola; therefore the percentage is not as high 
as it would be were the heat a larger one. 

PATRICK EG AN, 

Foreman The iilrai(jht Line Emjine Co. Foundry. 
Nov. 16, 1S83. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



341 



ROCHESTER, N.Y. 

COLLIAU 48" CUrOLA. 

Outside diameter 02" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 48" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 48" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 48" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 12' 

Style of tuyeres: two rows of tuyeres; lower row, oblong; upper row, 

round; lower, 9"X 4"; upper, 2h" diameter. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyeres, 24"; to upper 

tuyeres 40" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 21" 

Height from bottom i)late to bottom of slag-hole ITg" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 1,400 lbs. 
First charge of pig . . . 1,515 " 



" " scrap . 


. 1,852 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,852 


" " coke 


240 " 


" " coke . 


. 240 


Second charge of pig . 


. 1,515 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 1,515 


" " scrap 


. 1,852 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,852 



Second charge of coke 
Third charge of pig . 



240 lbs. 
1,515 " 



Seventeen more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 9 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 14" at blower, 12" at 
cupola. 



Time of starting fire . . 10.10 a.m. 

" charging first iron, 11.20 " 
Blast put on 12.30 p.m. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 12.35 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.45 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,800. Pressure of blast, 8^ ounces. Kind of 
flux used, limestone. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 70,707 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lli%. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 6,200 " I Length of heat, 4h. 15m. 

Remarks. — In this heat the above amount was meltod, having a uniform 
tcmiierature from first to last. The metal was poured into car-wlieels. 



Oct. 23, 1883. 



EDWARD J. CAMPBELL, 
Superintendent Rochester Car-Wheel Works. 



ni2 



AMl'.UICAX CT'l'OI.A l-KArTiri:. 



JERSEY CITY, N.J/ 

<<tMM<»N 1." ( t l'< »I, A. 

Outside diainotnr .V.,'" 

Thickness of liiiiiip .V 

Insido (liivinctcr at tuyeres •};." 

I^nr^jest iusiih; or ineltiiiK-pf)iiit diameter 17" 

Inside diameter at charj;iii;i-d()or I.")" 

lleij^lit from bottoiu plate up to bottom of chargiiii^-ddor 11' 

Style of tuyen^s: four .5" X 12" obloug tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 1_'" 

Height of tuyere above saud bottom ou back side (j" 



Fuel used for bed: coke 


. noo lbs. 


Fifth charge of pig . 


. 1,500 lbs 


First eliarge of pig . . 


. 2,(m " 


" " scrap 


. 5O0 " 


" " coke . . 


. iiOO " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


Second charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


. 1,200 " 


" " coke . 


. 300 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,000 " 


Tliird charge of pig . . 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke 


150 " 


" " coke . 


. 250 " 


Seventh charge of pig 


. 1,400 " 


Fourth charge of iiig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrap . 1,200 " 


" " coke . 


. 200 " 







No. 8 Sturtcvant fan; diameter main bhust-jiiiK^, 10". 



Time of starting fire . . 3.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, .'5.45 " 
Blast put ou 4.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4. MO p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.50 " 



Eevolutious of blower, 1,800. Kind of fuel uacd, Councllsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 14,800 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, l,i)00 " 
Ilalio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7iVo. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, lb. 35m. 



Bkmarks. — The class of work made is gener.al machinery, piano-plates, 
and pulleys. The iron was hot enough to pour piano-plates and very light 
pulleys. I supposed it might be called very hot, but I did not care to 
exaggerate. 

DANIEL F. TREACY, 
Supt. Davenport it 'Trcacij C'o.'s Works. 
Dec. 29, 1SS3. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA TRACTICE. 



343 



MT. HOLLY, NJ. 
MACKENZIE 41" CUPOLA. 

Ontsido diameter » . . . . 51" 

Thickness of liiiiug 5" 

luside diameter at tuyei'es .... 2.S" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 41" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 41" 

Height from bottom iihite up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres: flat IJ" opening, continuous tuyeres. 



Height of tuyere above sa 
Fuel used for bed: coke 


nd bottom on back si do 


. . 8' 


. 400 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . . 


90 lbs 


coal. 


. 600 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . . 


800 " 


First charge of pig . . 


1,600 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" " scrap . 


. 800 " 


" " coal . . . 


120 " 


" " coal . . 


. 120 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


800 " 


Second charge of pig . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" " scrap. 


. 400 " 


" " coke . . 


90 " 


" " coke . 


90 " 


Seventh charge of pig . . 


800 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . 


400," 


" " scrap . 


. 400 " 


coal. . 


120 " 


" " coal 


. 120 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


800 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" " scrap . 


. 400 " 







Three charges more, continued per order shown. 

No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12" 
Time of starting fire . . 12.00 M. First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 3.00 p.m 
Blast put on o.oO " 



iron 4.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.o0 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,255. Pressure of blast, 16" column of water. 
Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 14,400 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,050 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7t^. 

Remarks. — The above is an average heat, 
turbine water-wheels and mill machinery. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 



Our iron is used for pouring 



Dec. 3, 1883. 



T. H. RISDON, President, 
LUCIUS L. AYERS, Foreman, 

Risdon & C'o.'s Works Foundry. 



844 



AMKIMCAN CrrOI.A ri;A(TlCK. 



PHILADELPHIA, PENN. 
MACKKNZIK \W X r,A" (1 TOI.A. 

OutsidodiiiifJisiniis 1.;;;" X (iOj" 

I iisidf tliiiiciisions at tuyeres lH>"x42" 

L:ir^ist iiisido or incltiiiK-pxiiit irmiciisiniis lHi"x54" 

Tii.sidc tliiiicnsions at <liar;,'iii^'-(l()i>r ll(i"xr>4" 

Jlti^'lit fruiu bottom plate up to liottoin of ehar'^ing-door . . f>' "J" 
btyle of tuyeres; Hat 1" opeuiug, continuous tuyere. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere, 12" front ami .S" back. 
Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 4" 



Fuel used for bed : coal . ".,000 lbs. 

First charge of iron . . . 14,000 " 

" coal . . . l,'-'00 " 

Second charge of iron . . 14,000 " 

coal . . l.oOO " 

Third charge of iron . . 14,000 " 



Third ehargo of coal 
Fourth charge of iron 

" " coal 

Fifth charge of iron . 

" " coal . 

Sixth charge of iron . 



. 1,200 lbs. 
.14,000 " 
. 1,:500 " 
.12,000 " 

. i,:joo " 

.12,000 " 



I. P. Morris Co.'s oO" x 24" blowing engine. 



Time of starting fire 
Blast put on . . . 



. 11.00 A.M. I First appearance of fluid 

. 1.00 P.M. I iron 1.20 p.m. 

Bottom dropped, 5.08 p.m. 



Stroke of blower, 70. Pressure of blast, 12 ounces. Kind of fuel used, 
Lehigh coal. 



Amount of iron melted, 80,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 9,.'KX) " 
llatio of fuel to iron used. 1 to S/o. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 4h. 8m. 



Remarks. — The iron is used for heavy engine and machinery castings. 



DAVID J. MATLACK, 
Foreman I. P. Morris & Co.'s Works Foundry. 



Oct. 25, issa 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



345 



ERIE, PENN. 

COMMON ?^'l" CUPOLA. 

Ontside diameter 40" 

TJiickuess of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres ."51" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 35" 

Inside diameter at charging-door ;>0" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 8" 

Style of tuyeres : tlat, J" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15^" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side sy 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


120 lbs. 


Second charge of coke . 


80 lbs 


coal 


300 " 


" " coal . 


70 " 


First charge of pig . . 


900 '• 


Third charge of pig . . 


900 " 


" " scrap . 


GOO " 


" " scrap . 


600 " 


" " coke . . 


80 " 


" " coke . 


80 " 


coal . . 


70 " 


" " coal 


70 " 


Second charge of pig . 


900 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 900 " 


" " scrap. 


. GOO " 


" " scrap . 


. GOO " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pijje, 7". 



Time of starting fire . . 2.10 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.10 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.0G p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.05 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,100. Kind of fuel used, Shamokin coal and 
Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, Kirk's flux. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consiimed, 870 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to G^%. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



Remarks. — The above workings show average results. Our work is 
chiefly engine-castings. 

DAVID SMITH, 
Foreman Skinner & Wood's Works Fonndry. 
Oct. is, 1SS3. 



346 AMKiiir-AN rrrnT,A ruArTicE. 

PITTSBURGH, PENN. 

COMMON .M" cirni-A. 

Oiitsiilc tliiimiHcr T'J" 

Tliickiioss of lining U" 

Inside (liimifttT at tuj'crcs rii" 

Ijarp-st inside or mcltiiiti-pniiit (liaiiic'tiT r>>'," 

Inside diameter at cliar;;ing-door r.J" 

ITei^lit from bottom ]ilate up to bottom of eliart:iii;^-door 1-' 

Style of tuyeres : flat 1" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Heij^bt from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 2<>" 

Hci^zbt of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 11" 

Ileiglit from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole Hi" 

Fuel used for bed : coke . 1,400 lbs. Second charge of coke . . 200 Uis. 



First charge of iron . . . 4,.500 

" " coke. . . 200 

Second charge of iron . . 2,500 



Third cliarge of iron . . 2,500 

" " coke . . 200 

Fourth charge of iroa . . 2,500 



Six charges more, continued per order shown. 

No. 8 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Tiraeof starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron 1.30 p.m. 
Blast put on 2.50 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped . . . . HA) " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,200. Pressure of blast, to 11 ounces. Kind of 
fuel used, Connellsville coke. Kind of tiux used, limestone or oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 27,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, .3,200 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to S^^g. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2 hours. 



Re:mauks. — The class of work made is heavy steam and bla.st engines, 
and macdiinery. We have two 54" and one 'Mi" cupola ; also one air fur- 
nace. Our large cupolas can melt .'55 tons without trouble. 

"SYM. II. COXNER, 
Foreman Mackintosh & Hemphill {Fori Pill) Works Foiaidnj. 
Feb. 25, 1SS4. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA TRACTICE. 



347 



BALTIMORE, MD. 
COLLIAU 54" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter ' 7-" 

Thickness of lining 9" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 54" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 54" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 54" 

Heiglit from bottom-jdate up to bottom of charging-door 14' 

Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuj-eres, six above and six below; lower 
row oblong, upper row round, lower G" X 12", upper row 3" diam. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyeres 2(1" 

" " " " to upper tuyeres 45^ 

" " " " to bottom of slag-hole 20" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


2,000 


First charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


First charge of coke . . 


240 


Second charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


Second charge of coke . . 


240 


Third charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


Third charge of coke . . 


240 


Fourth charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 



Five more charges, continued per 



Fourth charge of coke . . 240 lbs. 
Fifth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Fifth charge of coke . . 240 " 
Sixth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Sixth charge of coke . . 240 " 
Seventh charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Seventh charge of coke . 240 " 
Eighth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
order shown. 



No. 6 Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 22" 

Time of starting fire . . 11.00 a.m. 

" charging first iron, 12.00 " 
Blast put on 1.30 p.m. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 1.45 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.30 " 



Revolution of blower, 120. 'Pressure of blast, 9J ounces. 



Amount of iron melted, 52,000 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lO^'g. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 4,880 " I Length of heat, 3 hours. 

Rkmauks. — We use 15 per cent wheel-scrap and 85 per cent charcoal 
jiig metal. Our heats range from 50,000 up to 150,000 pounds. Our iron is 
good and hot. 

WILLIAM HYSAN, 

Foreman Baltimore Car Wheel Co.'s Foundry. 
Feb. 14, lSS-1. 



MH 



A.Ml'.Kli AN Cfl'nl.A rKAC'lICK. 



WILMINGTON, DEL. 

Outsidn (lifimptor •'»0' 

TliickiH'ss of liiiiiiR (>' 

liisidc! diaiiiotiT at tuycrt-s 

Lar^ji'st iiisidi! or nicltinj^-point dianifter 

Iiisidt! diaiiU'ttT at (•liar'rin;'-door 



. ray 

](>' 10" 



lleiKlit from Ijottom j)latn up to bottom of cliargiiifj-door . . 
Style of tuyeres: Hat '_'" ojteuiug, continuous tuj-cre. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere l'.'" 

Iluiglit of tuyere above sand bottom on back side C" 



Fuel used for bed : coal 


. l,0.-,0 1bs. 


Third charge of iron 


.•!,n<»0 lbs 


First charge of iron . . 


. a.oix) " 


" " coal 


].» " 


" " coal . . 


. 150 " 


" " coko . 


75 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


Fourth charge of iron . 


n/xx) " 


Second charge of iron . 


. .-..ooo " 


coal . 


l.V) " 


" " coal . 


. 150 " 


" *' coko . 


75 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


Fifth charge of iron . . 


3,000 " 



Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipo, 12' 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron 2.00 v.M. 
Elast put on 3.00 " 



First appearance of fiuid 

iron .'!.07 p.m. 

Bottom droi>ped .... 5.15 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Pressure of blast, 8 to 12 ounces. Kind 
of flux used, oyster-shells. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 15,000 lbs. | Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to l^^g. 
Amount of fuel consumed, l,ii50 " | Length of heat, 21i. 15m. 

Rkmarks. — The above is the working of our smallest cupola. Our 
castings are for marine aud heavy machinery work. 



AVllJJA?*! STFAKT. 
Foreman Puscij tO Jv)us Co.'t! Ho/As Foiindnj. 



Nov. 25, 1SS3. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



349 



CINCINNATI, O. 

COMMON 42" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 00" 

Thickness of lining \)" 

Inside diameter at tnyeres 34" 

Largest inside or melting-jioint diameter 42" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door . . , 42" 

Height from bottom phite up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres : eight round tuj-eres, four 2" and lour SJ". 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of large tuyere IG" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


750 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . 


100 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,100 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


550 " 


" " scrap . 


900 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


" " coke. . 


100 " 


Second charge of pig . 


550 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


550 " 


" " scrap 


450 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 


" coke . 


100 " 


" coke . 


100 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


550 " 


Seventh charge of pig . 


550 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 


" " scraji 


450 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


550 " 


Eighth charge of pig . 


550 " 


" " scrap 


450 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 



Eleven more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 15". 



Time of starting fire . , 1.00 p.m. 

*' charging first iron 2.00 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 

Bottom dropped .... 



3.35 P.M. 
5.25 " 



Revolutions of blower, 150. Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 20,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,550 " 
Ratio of fuel to irou used, 1 to Ti^j^. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 55m. 



Re.marks. — Our castings would be classed as light, the machine castings 
being prini'i[ially for wood-working machinery, and more than half of our 
total uut[iut being of lighter character. AVe frequently have irou hot 
euough for stove-plate. Our heats vary from 15,000 to 24,000. 

SAMUEL E. HILLES, 
Samuel C. Tatum & Co.'s Works. 
Nov. 23, 1883. 



a.')!) 



AMKUICAN CUrOI,A l'ltA( TICK. 



PORTSMOUTH, O. 
TAPER CUPOLA. 

Outside (liamotor 72" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres "-"J" 

Lar;;est iiisido or melting-point diameter 40" 

Inside diameter at charginj^-door ."Vj" 

Height from bottora-plate up to bottom of cliarging-door ](/ 

Style of tuyeres : six ;V' X 4" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom-plate to bottom of tuyere 'J^»" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side LtK' 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 


. 500 


First charge of 




pig and scrap 


. GOO 


First charg(! of coke . . 


. -M 


Second charge of 




pig and scrap 


. cm 


Second charge of coke . 


. 30 


Third charge of 




pig and scrap 


. GOO 


Third charge of coke . . 


. ;» 


Fourth charge of 




pig and scrap 


. coo 



lbs. 



Four more charges, continued per 



Fourth charge of coke . , 
Fifth charge of 

pig and scrap , 
Fifth charge of coke . , 
Sixth charge of 

pig and scrap , 
Sixtli charge of coke . . 
Seventh charge of 

pig and scrap . 
Seventh charge of coke 
Eighth charge of 

pig and scrap . 
order shown. 



30 lbs. 



GOO 



GOO 
30 



COO 
30 



GOO 



No. 4 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 
First appearance of lluid 



Time of starting fire . . 2.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.."i0 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



iron 4.10 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.05 " 



Revolutions of blower, 120. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 7,200 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 830 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to i^xoo- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



Rem.arks. — This cupola is old style, drawn in at the bottom to save 
fuel. We use very little scrap, as it is siarce. We pour our iron iuto 
moulds for heavy maehinery and rolling-mill castings. 

THOMAS L. WniTE, 
Foreman Portsmouth Foiaulri/ and MaL-hinc-Works Foundry. 
Dec. 12, 18S3. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



351 



AKRON, O. 

COMMON 38," CUrOLA. 

Outside diameter 50" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 38" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 38" 

Inside diameter at cbarging-door 36" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 

Style of tuyeres : seven 5" round tuyeres. 



Height of tuyere above saud bottom t 
Fuel used for bed •. coke . 700 lbs. 


)n back side 


. . 9' 


Fifth charge of scrap . . 


540 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


l,f)'25 " 


" " coke . . . 


150 " 


" " scrap . 


1)00 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


750 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap . . 


500 " 


Second charge of pig . 


915 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap 


500 " 


Seventh charge of pig . . 


GOO " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


875 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


625 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " scrap . . 


540 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


700 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap 


540 " 


Ninth charge of pig . . . 


650 " 




180 " 


" " scrap . , 


550 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


800 " 







No. 5 Sturtevant fan ; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 3.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.45 " 
Bla.st put on 4.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.30 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,000. Pressure of blast, 13 ounces. Kind of 
flux used, limestone. 



Amount of iron melted, 12,610 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, IjOoO " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to G/'u^u- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 45m. 



Remarks. — Our iron is used chielly for making engines and heavy 

machinery-castings. 

ADAM FRANCE, 

Foreman Webster, Camp, <fc Lane Wvrks Foundry. 
Nov. 0, 1883. 



;>.>:i AMKincAN crroLA riiA( tick. 

YOUNGSTOWN, O. 

COMMON IS" crroLA. 

Oiitsido (lianiotrr W 

Tliiikiu'ss of linii)}; ('." 

Iiisiiln (liaiiictrr at tuyoros 44" 

l^arRf'st inside or mcliinp-point diaiurfcr 4s" 

Iiisidt; (liaiiH'tcr at cliar^iiii^j-door 4H" 

Height from Ixittoni platf! lip t(j bottom of charging-dtKir 11' 

Styl(^ of tuyert's : six 4" round tuyc^ros. 

Ileifjlit from bottom plato to bottom of tuyere 21" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on l)ack sidf Ki" 

Ileight from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole IS" 

The blast-pipe is connected to a wind-belt 10"xl2"; the belt encircles 

tlie cupola, with the exception of about 24" in front at the spout. 

Fuel used for bed : coke . 1,500 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 4,.")00 " 

" " scrap . . 5<)0 " 

coke. . . ?m " 

Second charge of pig . . 2,000 " 

" " scrap . 2,200 " 

coke . . 300 " 

Third charge of pig . . . 2,000 " 

" " scrap . . 2,200 " 

" " coke . . oOO " 

Fourth charge of pig . . 2,000 " 

scrap . 2,2(K) " 

coke . . 'Am " 

Fiftli charge of pig . . . 2,000 " 

No. 7 Sturtcvaut fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12". 



Fifth charge of scrap 


. 2,200 lbs 


" " coke . 


. vm " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke 


200 " 


Seventh charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrai 


) . 2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


Eighth charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


Ninth charge of pig . 


. 2,0(X) " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 A..M. 
" charging first iron, 2.00 p.m. 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of Uuid 

iron 3.4.') p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... G.JO " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,000. Kind of flux used, limestone. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, oh. 20iu. 



Amount of iron melted, 37,800 lbs. 

Amount of fuel consumed, 3,(>00 " 

Ilatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOJ. 

Remarks. — Our work is heavy machinery-castings. When required, 

■we have another cupola, .H" inside diameter, to helj) us out in very heavy 

heats. The small cui)ola is built upon about the same principle as the 

above, and both have always worked satisfactt)rily. 

WILLIAM NOLL, 

Foreman Uamilton's Works Foundry. 
Oct. 24, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



353 



LANSING, MICH. 

COMMON 29" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 48" 

Thickness of lining . . 9^" 

Insitio iliainetcr at tuyeres 29" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 29" 

Inside diameter at eharging-door 29" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of eharging-door .... 8' 6" 
Style of tuyeres : three 4" X 9" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 18" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 11" 

Three 6" branch-pipes carry the blast from the main pipe to the cupola's 
tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed: coke . IfiS lbs. 

coal . 200 " 

First charge of iron . . . 2,000 " 

" " coke . . 1G8 " 



Second charge of iron . . 1,000 lbs. 

" " coke . . (J4 " 

Third charge of iron . . 1,000 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 8"; cupola 18' from blower. 

First appearance of fluid 



Time of starting fire . . 2.20 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.58 " 
Blast put on . ... . . 3.25 " 



iron 3.35 p.m. 

Bottom drojjped .... 4.41 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,000. 



Amount of iron melted, 4,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 600 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Gtoo- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. ICm. 



Remarks. — Our iron is used for engine, saw-mill, and jobbing castings. 



Feb. 26, 1884. 



JAMES CROWNER, 
Foreman Jarvis, Barnes, & Co.'s Works Foundry. 



aoi 



A.Mi;i:i(AN cri'oi.A I'Iiaitick. 



INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 

COMMON :k;" ( ti'ola. 

Ontsifle (linmotor 5.;" 

Tliickiifss of liniiiR. . hj" 



iiiKKiifss oi lining. . I. 
Inside iliiiriK'tcr :it tuvorc 



I^iirp'st in.sitle or inrltiiifx-point diameter 3(1" 

Inside diameter at cliar;:iiif;-door X>" 

llei}:ht from bottom j)late up to bottom of tliar;;iiif^-d<)or 'y.i" 

Style of tuyeres : two .S" round tuyeres. 

IIeit;ht from bt)ttom ])late to botttun of tuyere Hi" 

Ileij^ht of tuyere above sand Ixtttoiu on back side 12" 

Two 8" branch i^ipes lead direct from the main pipe to the tuyores. 

Fuel used for bed : coke 
First charge of i)ig . . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Second charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Third charge of pig . . 
" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

Fourth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

Thirteen more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 8 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, li"; cupola 50' from blower. 



050 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . . 


12.'> lbs 


700 " 


Fifth cliarge of pig . . . 


700 " 


.S(K) " 


" " scrap . . 


300 " 


125 " 


" " coke . . . 


12.J " 


700 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


7tK) " 


.•MX) " 


" " scrap . . 


;i00 " 


125 " 


" " coke , . . 


125 " 


700 " 


Seventh charge of pig , . 


700 " 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


125 " 


" " coke 


125 " 


700 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


700 " 


300 " 


" " scrap 


300 " 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.15 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of duid 

iron 4.05 f.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,000. Pressure of blast, strong. 



Amount of iron melted, 21.000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 3,550 " 
llatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Oi'Vu- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, lb. ;K)m. 



Remarks. — The abo\e was an average heat during the busy season. 
Our castings arc for architectural work. 

CTIRIS. BAKER, 
Fuixinan Ilainjii, Ivi IcIkiiu, it (.'o.'s Wurks Fmindri/. 
Ai-KiL 1-J, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



355 



CHICAGO, ILL. 
MACKENZIE «!" X 42" CUPOLA. 

Outside dimensions 

Thickness of lining 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 

Largest inside or melting-point dimensions 

Inside dimensions at cbarging-door . . , 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 

Style of tuyeres : fiat 1^" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere . . . , 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side • . , 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


. GOO 


coal 


. 400 


First charge of pig . . 


2,500 


" " scrap . 


. 2,500 


" " coal . . 


. 200 


" " coke . . 


. 200 


Second charge of pig . 


2,500 


" " scrap 


. 2,500 


" " coal . 


. 200 


" " coke . 


200 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 2,500 


" " scrap . 


. 2,500 


" " coal . . 


200 


" " coke . 


200 



lbs. 



Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coal 

" " coke 

Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coal . 

coke. 
Sixth charge of pig . 
" " ~ scrap 

" " coal. 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of scrap 



No. 6 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 14". 



78" X 54" 
6" 

CO" X ;5G" 
Gli" X 42" 
m" X 42" 
<J' G" 

10" 
7" 

2,500 lbs. 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

7,000 " 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, l.."0 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.45 r.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 



Revolutions of blower, 196. 

TOTALS. 



Amount of iron melted, 37,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 3,400 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOr^oV 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 30m. 



Remarks. — There can be 20 or 22 tons melted in this cupola; but do not 

advise any more tlian 18 tons, as tlu!re is no economy in overcrowding a 

cupola. The hist charge of all scrap will maki; grat«!-bar, etc. Our general 

run of castings are steam and hydraulic engine fittings. 

JNO. B. ROCKAFELLOW, 

Superintendent Crane Brothers Manufacturing Co. 
Dec. a, 18S3. 



35() 



AMi;ilI( AN rrifilA lliACTlCl-;. 



GALESBURG, ILL. 
COMMON ;•,(»" cri'OLA. 

Outside (lianu'tor 40" 

TliiikiH'ss of liiiiiip; r>" 

Inside (liiUiichT iit tiiycn-.s iK)" 

Largest iiisiilc or lui-ltiiij^-poiiit diaiiK'tcr 'M" 

Inside diauieti-r at cliar;i;in}i-d(»ir ■'!'>" 

Height from bottom plate up to )i(itt(ini nf i-liar;,'in;^-doi)r '.»' 

Style of tuyeres : three (!" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere I'J" 

Height of tuyere above sand liottom on back side 9" 

Throe 0" branch pijies leail direct from main pipe to tlie cupola's tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed : coal . COO lbs. 

First charge of iron . . . 1,500 " 

" " coke. . . 200 " 

Second charge of iron . . 1,000 " 

" " coke . . 100 " 

Third charge of iron . . 5(X) " 

" coke . . IfX) " 

Fourth charge of irou . . 500 " 



Fourth charge of eokcr . 
Fifth charge of iron . . 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of iron . . 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of iron 
" " coke 

Eightli charge of irou . 



KM) Dis. 
500 " 
100 " 
5(W " 
100 " 
500 " 
100 •' 
2,000 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 8"; length, 25' 



Time of starting fire . . 

" charging first iron, 

Blast put ou 



1.30 P.M. 
2.45 " 

3.25 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.."/) i-.m. 

Bottom driip]icd .... -l.'M " 



Revolutions of blower, 
flux used, limestone. 



2,500. Pressure of blast, 10 ouuces. Kind of 



Amount of iron molted, 7,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,400 " 
Katio of fuel to irou used, 1 to 5. 



Fluidity of molted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



TlKMAnKS. — Our work is very light, and lioure we require very hot irou. 
Our castings are for agricultural jiurposes. 

DAVID SPENCE, 
Forcmun G. W. Brown & Co.'s Works Foinidri/. 
Apnii. 3, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



357 



BELOIT, WIS. 

COMMON 40" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 55" 

Tliickness of lining ; 7^' 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 40" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 40" 

Inside diameter at charging-door . o 40" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres : four 7" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuvere above sand bottom on back side 8" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


300 lbs 


coal 


300 " 


First charge of iron . . 


2,400 " 


" " coke . . 


120 " 


Second charge of iron . 


1,200 " 


" " coke . 


120 " 


Third charge of iron . 


1,200 " 


" " coke . 


120 " 


Fourth charge of iron . 


1,200 " 



Fourth charge of coke . . 120 lbs. 

Fifth charge of iron . . . 1,200 " 

" " coke . . 120 " 

Sixth charge of iron . . . 1,200 " 

" " coke . . 120 " 

Seventh charge of iron . , 1,200 " 

coke . 120 " 

Eighth charge of iron . . 1,200 " 



No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.00 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.10 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,400. Kind of flux used, fluor spar. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 10,800 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,440 " Length of heat, Ih. 40m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7-pu. \ 

Remarks. — The class of work made is paper machinery and jobbing 
ca.stings. The blast-pipe connects to a wind-belt 6" X 12", which encircles 
three-quarters of the cupola's circumferences. 



J. E. PARKER, 

Foreman Merrill & Houslin Works Foundry. 



Oct. 25, 1883. 



358 



AMi;in<AN cti'oi.A niAr-ncK. 



MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 

( (»M \I()N :•..■." «l I'oj-A. 

Oiifsi.lo (liuiMotfr i"" 

Tlii<kniss of liniiiK »" 

Insidn iliiiiiicttT at tuycns .'>.')" 

Ijiir;,'c.st iiisiilc or iiicltinj^-iHiint diaiiiitcr •">■'" 

Inside diameter at fliarj,'in{;-duiir •"-'>" 

Heij^lit from liottoiu jilati; up to li'itiom of eliarjiiii^i-flDor 7' 4" 

Style of tiiyiTcs : four tuyeres, '<^" diameter at inside of liniii;;?, ami (>" 

diameter at shell. 

IIei;,'ht from hottoiii plate to bottom of tuyere 10" 

Heij,'lit of tuyere above sand bottom on baek side I'J" 

llei-^ht from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole '.>" 

Fuel used for bed: coke . 450 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 1,200 " 

serap . . 1,200 " 

coke. . . m " 

Second charge of pig . . 300 " 

" " scrap. . 300 " 

coke . . 50 " 

Tliiril charge of pig . . . 300 " 

" " scrap . . 300 " 

" " coke . . 50 " 

Fourtli charge of pig . . 300 " 

" " scrap . . 300 " 

" " coke . . 50 " 

No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 9'' 



Fifth charge of pig . . 


vm lbs 


" " scrap . 


. 300 " 


" " coke . 


.•50 " 


Sixth charge of jiig . . 


. .TOO •' 


" " scrap . 


, 3fl0 " 


" " coke . 


.50 " 


Seventh charge of pig . 


. 300 " 


" " scrap 


. 300 " 


" " coke 


50 " 


Eighth charge of pig . 


:joo " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


" " cuke . 


50 " 


Ninth charge of scrap . 


. 1,400 " 



Time of starting fire . . . 3.10 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 4.15 " 
Blast put on 4.40 " 



First appearance of liuid 

iron 4.47 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 



Revolution of blnwcr, 2,s00. Kind of Hux used, tiuor spar. After the 
first charge, then 7 pounds to every charge was used. 

TOTALS. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 1 hour. 



Amount of iron melted, 8,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 850 " 
llatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to i),^,. 

Ri:m,vrks. — We have made quicker time than the above, but that 
shown is an average. What scrap we use, aside from our gates, etc., is of 
the best quality. The last charge, of 1,400 lbs. is mostly all scrap for sash- 
weights. Our general work is mill-machinery and steam-engines. 

P. L. SIMI'.SON, 
Foreman Norlh .S7ar Iron Works Foundry. 
Oct. 31, 18S3. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 359 

BURLINGTON, IOWA. 

COMMON '25" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40" 

Tliickiicss of lining S" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 2.")" 

Largest inside or meltinj^-point diameter 2(i" 

Inside diann^ter at eharging-tloor 24" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charglng-door 10' 

Style of tuj'eres : two 5" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom i>late to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side (J" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 400 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 300 " 

" " scrap . . 300 " 

" " coke. . . 100 " 



Second charge of pig . . 300 lbs. 

scrap . GOO " 

" " coke . . 100 " 

Third charge of scrap . . 800 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10"; length, 31', 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 4.00 " 
Blast put on 4.:j0 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.45 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.45 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,400. Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 2,300 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 000 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 3nfV- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 15m. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is small castings and general 
machinery. Most of our work requires metal at white heat. The blast 
was not put on as strong as it could have beciu had we been able to take 
care of the iron. The heat bciing small does not, of course, show the 
economy it would were the heat a larger one. 

W. L. SCHTJCK, 
Foreman Heimlcn & ISchuck Works Foundry. 
Mat 19, 1884. 



360 



AMKUICAN (Tl'fjLA I'UACTICK. 



GRINNELL, IOWA. 

CnMMdN :;i" ci |-(»|, \. 

Outside (liamofor 4.s" 

Tlii<-kn<'ss of lining; 7" 

Insidt- (liaiintcr at tny<T<',s M" 

largest insidi; or incltin^i-poiiit diaiiHtcr :a" 

Insiil(M]iaiii('tt'r at ch.irf^iiifj-door "M" 

llci;;lit from l)ottom plate up to bottom of <liar;;in;4-<loor 'y 

Style of tuyerr;s : eif^ht 2" X (i" Hat tuyeres. 

llcijjlit froMi liottoin plate to bottom of tuyere U" 

Two braneh-pijies 7" diameter carry the blast from main pipe to tlio 
wind-belt. 

Fourth charge of pig . . fWO 11)3. 

" " scrap . .'{00 " 

" " coke . . 5.T " 

Fifth charge of pig ... TwO " 

" " scrap . . ;J00 " 

" " coke . . .W " 

Sixlli charge of pig . . . 700 " 

" " scrap . . 250 " 

" " coke . . 55 " 

Seventh charge of pig . . 300 " 

gates . GOO " 
diameter main blast-pipe, 10"; length, 27'. 
.S.25 P.M. I First appearance of fluid 

iron 4. .17 r.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.1() " 
Revolutions of blower, ;>,200. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh and Counells- 
ville coke. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, Cifir>0 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7^^. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 8;?5 " I Length of heat, 4(3 m. 

Remarks. — I am running a cupola that we put up sis months a^o. The most fuel I 
ever used Wiis 1 to 7, and I am now meltint; with 1 to 8. I believe in using all the fuel 
required to melt good iron, but I do not believe in waxting it. 

The tirst fifteen hundred pounds of iron i.s run into mower wheels. These wheels 
have wrought iron spokes in them, and the rims have to be poured first, to give lliem a 
chance to shiink before the hul) is ixinred. We have a light seat, and also a light gc-ar 
cover, and several other pieces that liike hot iron, and we have no trouble in running them. 

The tuyeres in my cupola are 14" from biise. I have used them ae low uo 12", but for 
coke 1 prefer to have them higher. 

In some foundries they use tire-clay, weakened with sand. I use common clay mixed 
with the burned sand that comes from the castings. It is hard to mix, but makes a good 
lining. The sand preveuLs the clay from cracking, and it stands fire equal to lire-clay. 

J.\COB OTT, 

Foreman Cravcr, Steele, & Auslln's Agricultural Works Foundry. 



Fuel used for l)ed: coke . 


mi lbs. 


coal . 


- 200 " 


First charge of pig . . . 


7(X) " 


" " scrap . . 


300 " 


" " coke. . . 


(iO " 


Second charge of pig . . 


(;.-.o " 


" " scrap . . 


;;oo " 


" " coke . . 


."m " 


Third charge of pig . . . 


or.o " 


" " scrap . . 


;kx) " 


" " coke . . 


.w " 


No. 5 Sturtevant fan ; 


diameter 


Time of .starting fire . . 


.S.25 P.M. 


" charging first iron, 


4.00 " 


Blast put on 


4..!0 " 



June 3, 1884 



AMERICAN CUrOTA TRACTICE. 



361 



OMAHA, NEB. 
CAR-WHEEL DEPARTMENT : COMMON 50" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 024" 

Thickness of lining (>" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 50" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 52" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 50" 

Height from bottom iilate up to l><)ttom of chargiug-door .... 10' 2" 
This cupola has six 3.^" x 8^" oblong tuyeres. Height from bottom plate 
to bottom of tuyeres, ISg". The hottest melting-point is aljout 18" above 
the top of the tuyeres. "Main blast-pipe to branches is 200' long. There 
are two branch-pipes, 16" diameter, IS' long. 

MACHINERY DEPARTMENT: COMMON 50" CUPOLA. 

The cupola in this department is the same size as the cupola in the 
■wheel department, with the exception of the tuyeres. This cupola has 
three rows of tuyeres, all of which are 4" in diameter; there are six in each 
row. The respective; distance of each row from the bottom plate is 1.5", 
24", and 34". The two upjier rows of tuyeres are at an angle of 40°, so as to 
throw the blast downwards. The hottest melting-point is about 14" above 
the top row. The lining between the two lower rows is also burned out a 
little from the effects of the blast. 

From the fan to the branch-]iipes, the main pipe is 68'. The length of 
the two 18" brant-h-pipes leading to the cupola is 22'. The diameter of maia 
pipe is 24". It has a No. 8 double Sturtevant blower, making 1,700 revolu- 
tions. The wind-belt surrounding the cupola is 30" deep by Og" wide. 



Cak-Wheel Cupola. 



lbs. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 1,200 

First charge of pig 2,000 

" " wheel-scrap .... 2,480 

" " coke 215 

Second charge of pig 1,000 

" " wheel-scrap . . . 1,240 

" " coke 21a 

Third charge of pig 1,000 

" " wheel-scrap . . . 1,240 
Fourteen more charges, coutiuued in the 

order shown. 

TIME. 

Time of starting fire .... 11.00 a.m. 

" charging first iron . . 11.5.5 " 

Blast put on 12.15 p.m. 

First appearance of fluid Iron . 12.22 " 

Bottom dropped 2.50 " 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted . . . 40, .".20 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed . . 4,040 " 
Italio of fuel to iroji used, 1 to 8.G9. 
Length of heat, 2h. 35m. 



Machinery Cupola. 



lbs. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 1,200 

First charge of scrap 5,000 

" " coke 210 

Second charge of scrap 2,000 

coke 210 

Third charge of scrap 2,000 

" "^ coke 210 

Fourth charge of scrap 2,000 

Fifteen more charges, continued in the 
order shown. 

TIME. 

Time of starting fire .... 2.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron . . 3.00 " 

Blast put on 3.20 " 

First api)earance of fluid iron . 3.27 " 

Bottom dropped 5.40 '♦ 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted . . . 41,000 lbs. 
.Vmount of fuel consumed . . 4,980 " 
Uatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 8.23. 
Length of heal, 2h. 20m. 



Remarks. — We h.ive melted as high as 1 to OJ (with Connellsvillo coke for fuel) in 
the wheel furnace. Our iron is when melted very hot and fluid. 1 find very little differ- 
ence in the two cupolas, with the heats we are running, e.xcept the machinery cupola 
melts the fastest at the end of heat. Were the two cupolas run above the general capa- 
city of such sized furnaces, then the cupola with the three rows of tuyeres would pro- 
duce the hottest iron, and perform the fastest melting, if they were both charged exactly 
alike. 

EDWARD RICHELIEU, 
Foreman Union Pacific Itailwaij Foundry. 
April 4, 1884. 



802 



AMKKK AN rtl'fil.A I'KACTK'K. 



DENVER, COL. 
COMMON :•.-•" ni'oF.A. 

Outside (liaiiu'tcr 

Tliitkiiitss of liiiiii;; 

Inside fliaini'lrr at tiiyrrcs 

J^arjicsl iiisidi! or iiicltiii;4-ii<)iiit^ diaiiH't<T 

liisidi- diaiiuItT at cliar^^iiiK-door 

llfi;ilit from liottoin plate; up to liottom of <liar^'ing-door 
Stylt! of tuyeres : six '.i\" round tuyeres. 

Hti;;lit from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 

Hi'igbt of tuyere above sand bottoui ou back side .... 

000 lbs. Fourtli charge of coke 
800 
500 
SO 
700 
500 

•to 

400 
(■)00 
100 
400 
000 
Four more charges, same as last charge shown. 

No. 6 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 10". 
Time of starting firo . . 1.00 p.m 

" charging first iron, 3.00 " 
Blast put ou 3.45 " 



Fuel used for bed : coke 

First charge of pig . . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . . 

Second charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 



Fifth charge of i»ig . . 
" " scrap . 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of i)ig . . 
" " scrap . 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Eighth charge of pig 
" " scrap 



«' ;•" 



'2\" 
18" 



IfX) lbs. 
400 " 
(JOO " 
100 " 
400 " 
fiOO " 
100 " 
400 " 
GOO " 
100 " 
2ryO •' 
750 " 



First appearance of Huid 

iron 4.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... fJ.lO " 



Pressure of blast, 7| ounces. Kind of fuel used, ConnellsNallc coke. 



TOTALS. 

12,500 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 'Jh. 2.jm. 



Amount of iron melted, 

Amount of fuel consumed, 1,070 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7 Ami. 

Hkmarks. — "We used in this heat 4,000 pounds old car-whcol; the bal- 
ance of scrai^ was ordinary railroail castings. We have melted in same 
cuiiola 15,000 pounds in three hours, with about same couditious. Our 
general castings are for mimng machinery. 

F. M. n.WTS, Proprietor, 
A. COUDINGLY, Foreman, 

Denver Foundry and Machine Co- 
Skpt. 20, 1SS4. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



363 



FORT SCOTT, KAN. 
COMMON -M" CUPOLA. 

Outside di.imfitpr n2" 

Thickness of liniuji: S" 

Inside dianiotcr at tuyeres 37" 

Largest inside or raelting-poiut diameter ;{7" 

Inside diameter at cliargiug-door 'M" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door '.)' 

Style of tuyeres : four '3^" X 4^" oval tuyeres. 

Height from bottom jilate to bottom of tuj'ere 19" 

Height of tuyere above saud bottom on back side 9" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


. 425 lbs. 


Third charge of pig • . 


400 lbs 


First charge of pig . 


. 700 " 


" " scrap . 


1,700 " 


" " scrap 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " coke . 


. 200 " 


Fourth charge of pig 


400 " 


Second charge of pig 


. 200 " 


" " scrap. 


1,700 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,100 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


" " coke 


. 150 " 


Fifth charge of pig , . 


100 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 14", 60' lonj: 
three round curved elbows. 



having 



Time of starting fire . . . 4..30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 5. .3.") " 
Blast put on 6.05 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 6.10 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 7.16 " 



Amount of iron melted, 6,400 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,025 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to (ifou. 



Fluidity of iron melted, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 11m. 



Rejiarks.— The above is the working of an ordinary heat. The last 
chai'ge of scrap was omitted ; as, after the pig was in, we found we had 
enough charged necessary to pour all off. Had there been more wanted, 
800 pounds more iron could have been melted without the adding of moro 
fuel. Our castings are for engines, mining and mill machinery. 



Oct. 19, 1883. 



F. J. NUTZ, Suiierintendcnt, 
NELSON ANDERSON, Foreman, 

Fort Scott Foundry and Machine Works, 



.%4 



AMI. KUAN fll-OLA I'K AC'l KK. 



CA' 



ST. LOUIS, MO. 
COMMON M" CI I'OLA. 

< (ntsidf (liiiiiicttT 

TliickiM'Ss of liiiiriK Ti 

Inside (liaini'tcr at tiiyiTcs r.l 

IjurgL'st iii.sidr or nicltiiijj-point dianiftfr M 

Iiisiih' (liaiiH'ttT at <liar;iiiifj-<lo<ir r.l 

llcif;ht from l)ottoiii i)lat(; uj) t<j bottom of <liargiiig-iloor 1-' 

Style of tuyeros : eight Hat IJ" X 10" tuyere.s. 

lleiglit from l)ottt)in plate to liottom of tuyere '-- 

lleiglit of tuyere altove sand bottom on back side i;> 



Height from bottom jdatc 


to bottom t 


r slag-hole 


. . IS' 


Fuel used for bed : coke 


1,500 11)3 


Fourth charge fif coke . . 


20») lbs 


First charge of 




Fifth charge of 




pig and scrap 


7,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


" " coke . . . 


200 " 


" " coke . . . . 


200 " 


Second charge of 




Sixth charge of 




pig and scrap 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,0f»0 " 


" " coke . . . 


liOO " 


" " coke . . . • 


'_'<J0 " 


Thinl charge of 




Seventh charge of 




pig and scrap 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap 


3,000 " 


" " coke . . . 


200 " 


" " coke .... 


200 " 


Fourtli charge of 




Eighth charge of 




pig and scrap 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 



Five more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5^ Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 18 
Time of starting fire . . 11.00 a.m 

" charging first iron, 1.00 p.m 
Blast put on 2.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.1.") p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.;W " 



Revolutions of blower, l^X). Pressure of blast, 10 ounces, 
used, Conuellsville coke. Kiud of tiux used, limestoue. 



Kiud of fuel 



Amount of iron melted, 43,000 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fui;! consumed, 3,i)00 '* Length of heat, 'Jh. oOm. 
Katio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lliSo- 

Rkmarks. — Our charges are, as a general thing, mixed two-tliinls pig to 
one-third scrap. Have uu'lted a .")4,000 pounds heat with tiie charges the 
same as above, thereby making the ratio 1 to 12. Oux' castings are for all 

kinds of machinery. 

"SVILLIAM G. LOCKHART, 
Forc7nan Fulton Iron Works Foundry. 
Oct. is, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA rilACTICE. 



365 



ASHLAND, KY. 
COMMON 30" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 44" 

Thickness of lining . 7" 

Inside diameter ;it tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter . . , t 30" 

Inside diameter at eharging-door , 24" 

Height from bottom jjlute up to bottom of chargiug-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres ; two 5" round tuyeres 

Height from bottom ])Iate to bottom of tuyere 18" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


300 lbs. 


Fourth charge of scrap 


. 200 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coke 


30 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


Fifth charge of pig . 


. 100 " 


" " coke. . 


40 " 


" " scrap 


. 200 " 


Second charge of pig . 


100 " 


" " coke . 


30 " 


" " scrap 


200 " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


40 " 


" " scraxj 


. 200 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


100 " 


coke 


30 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


Seventla charge of pig 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


30 " 


" " scraj 


J . 200 " 


Fourtli charge of pig . 


100 " 







No. i Sturtevaut fan. 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2. .30 " 
Blast put ou . .... 3 00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.15 p.m. 

Bottom dropped . . . . 4.00 " 



Kevolutions of blower, 3,200. 



Amount of iron melted, 2,100 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 500 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 4i'"(j. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 



Remarks. — Railroad and mine castings is the general ruu of work 
made. 

WILLIAM LEWIS, 
Foreman Ashland Coal and Iron Railioay Works Foundry. 
Nov. 15, 1883. 



:'>(;<; 



AMi;i;iC.\N Ctl'Ol.A l'HA< I ICK 



RICHMOND, VA. 
COLLIAU 40" CUrOLA. 

Ontsido (lifiinetor 

TliirkiH-ss uf lining 

Iiisidf di:iiiu!tcr Jit tuynros 

Larf^cst inside or meltinjJi-poiiit diameter 

Insidt! (liaiiieter at cliarjiiiiji-door 

lleij,dit from bottom iilate up to bottom of rharpnnR-doMr .... 11 
Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six al)ov(; aii<l six below; boltoiu 

row 4" X 8", top row Ih" diameter- 
Ileifibt from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere, 22"; to top. 
H(M}Xlit of lower tuyere above sand l)ottom on back side . 
lleij^lit from bottom plate to bottom of slaj^-liole . . . 



Fuel used for bed: coke 


, 800 lbs. 


Third charge of scrap 


First charge of pig . , 


. 2,.")00 " 


" " c(jke 


" " scrap . 


. 1,500 " 


Fourth charge of [lig 


" " coke . . 


. 170 " 


" " scrap 


Second charge of pig . 


. 1,000 " 


" " coke 


" " scrap 


. 1,500 " 


Fifth charge of pig . 


" " coke . 


. 170 " 


" " scrap 


Third charge of pig . . 


. i,->oo " 





40" 
40" 
40" 

' (;" 



1,000 lbs. 

170 " 

500 " 

2,000 " 

170 " 

500 " 

3,000 " 



No 5\ Baker blower; diameter main bla.st-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.00 r.M. 
Blast i)ut on ..... 3.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3..'V) r.M. 

Bottom dropped • . . . 4.45 " 



Revolution of blower, IHj to 100. Pressure of blast, 7 ounces. Kind 
of fuel used, West Virginia coke. Kind of llux used, scraps of marble, 
40 pounds to each charge. 



Amount of iron melted, 15,000 lbs- 
Ajuount of fuel consumed, 1,480 " 
Batio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOi'J'y. 



Fluidity of iron melted, XX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 'Mm. 



Rkm.msks. — Our last iron is hotter than the fir.st. The coke used was 
rather soft and mashy. The castings made are for engines and saw-mills. 

L. FOX, 

Foreman Tuiincr and Dduncif Ewjinc Co.'s Works Foiimlnj. 
Xov. 3, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA TKACTICE. 



367 



SALEM, N.C. 

COMMON 26" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 42" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 2(3" 

Lariiest inside or melting-point diameter 2G" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 22" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 7' 6" 

Style of tuyeres : flat, 2" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12J" 

Height of tuyere above saud bottom on back side 4" 



Fuel used for bed : coal . . 400 lbs. 
First charge of iron .... 500 " 
" " coal .... 50 " 

Second charge of iron . . . 500 " 



Second charge of coal 
Third charge of iron 
" " coal 

Fourth charge of iron 



. 50 lbs, 
.500 " 
. 50 " 
.500 " 



Ten more charges, continued per order shown. 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 8". Fau within 8' of 
cupola. 



Time of starting fire . , 1.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.00 " 
Blast put on 2.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.20 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 3.50 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,000. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh anthracite (egg). 



Amount of iron melted, 7,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,050 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6/'u'o. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 35ui. 



Remarks. — We use Low Moor and Longdale, Va., iron. The Low 
Moor is very refractory to melt. Our work is saw-mill and general 
machinery castings. 



E. BABINGTON, 

Furanau Halan Jrou Works Foundry. 



Oct. 1-2, 1883. 



308 



AMI.IilCAN CII'OI.A rUAClKJE. 



NASHVILLE, TENN. 
COMMON r,C," CUPOLA. 

Ontsido (lisimetor 

Tliiikticss of lining: 

Inside iliaiiu'tcr at tnycrt's 

DiainiMor lU" above tlie centre of tlic tuyeres 

Largest inside or melt inp;-i>oint diameter 

Inside diameter at cliarj;infi;-door 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of eliargmt; <loor 

Style of tuyeres : twelve 4" ronnd tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tnyere 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on baek side 

The tuyeres take their blast from a' wind-belt I'J" x JO" with which 
l.T' branch-iiijies connect. 



70// 

H" 



r>i\" 
w 



Fuel used for l)cd: coke 


. l,.">00 1bs. 


Fourth cliargc of coke . 


2."2 


First charge of pig . . 


. 2,0()0 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


. 1,4(W 


" " scrap 


. l,Of)0 " 


" " scraji . 


, 800 


" " coke . . 


. 2.-.2 " 


" " coke 


. 252 


Second charge of pig . 


. 1,300 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


. 1,400 


" " scrap . 


. 700 " 


" " scrap . 


. 800 


" " coke . 


. 252 " 


" " coke 


. 252 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 1,400 " 


Seventh charge of pig . 


. 1,400 


" " scrap . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap 


, 800 


" " coke . 


. 252 " 


" " coke 


. 252 


Fourth (iiarge of pig 


. 1.400 " 


Eighth charge of pig . 


. 1,400 


" " scrap. 


. 800 " 


" " scrap. 


. 800 



12" 

S" 

two 

lbs. 



Eight more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, IS". 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 1..30 p.m. 
Blast put on .3.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron .3.00 

Bottom dropped .... 5.;50 



Revolutions of blower, 150. Kind of fuel used, Alabama coke. 



TOT.4LS. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
I-ength of heat, 2h. 30ni. 



Amount of iron melted, .35..'W 11 is. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 5,080 " 
llatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Tjxas- 

Bem.akks. — The l)lower does not run as fast as it should to do its best 
work. We melt fnmi 7.j to S tons jx-r hour. There is abnut two thousand 
ptuinds <(f metal left in the cupula when the blast is stopped, which stands 
iifteen In twenty minutes until it can be poured. It has to be poun'tl into 
iiiiiuMs that recpiire dull iron, and is bandleil by few men; hence the delay. 
'J'lie eastiiii^s we uiakt! are stoves, manttds, and hollow-ware, therefore our 
iruu mu.-5t be very hot. 

CHAKI.ES PRESTON, 
Forc7nan l'hiUij>s it Baltorff :>(ove Works Foundry. 
Feb. 27, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA TRACTICE. 



369 



CHATTANOOGA, TENN. 

(^OMMON 28" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40" 

Tliickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 28" 

Largest inside or nieltinpi-poiiit. diameter 28" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 20" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door V &' 

Style of tuyeres : two 3^" X 7" oval tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 

Two 6" branch pipes carry the blast frona main pipe to the cupola tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


400 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . 


50 lbs 


First charge of pig . . . 


GOO " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


600 " 


" " scrap . . 


200 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


" " coke . . . 


50 " 


" " coke 


50 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


600 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


600 " 


" '* scrap 


200 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


" " coke . . 


50 " 


" " coke 


150 " 


Third charge of pig . . . 


600 " 


Seventh charge of pig . 


600 " 


" " scrap . . 


200 " 


" " scrap 


200 " 


" " coke . . 


50 " 


" " coke 


150 " 


Fourth charge of pig . . 


600 " 


Eighth charge of pig . 


. tiOO " 


" " scrap . . 


200 " 


" " scrap. 


200 " 



No. 1 Root blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 8". 



Time of starting fire . . 2.00 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.45 " 

Blast put on 4.00 " 

Revolutions of blower, 600. 



First aiipearance of fluid 

iron 4.05 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 
Kind of flux used, limestone. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 40m. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,400 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 950 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Q^io. 

Rkm.akks. — The blower is too small for our work, and has to run too 
fast. W'ln'ii (jur heats are heavier than 4,800 jiounds, we make the sixth 
charge of fuol 150 pounds instead of 50. We find that we cannot make good 
fluid iron with certainty ev(!ry heat with much less coke than 1 to Ty-. We 
have melted as high as 1 to !), and quite freiiuently melt 6,000 pounds by 
ha\ing4()0 pounds coke on bed and .50 pounds for all the charges; but we 
prefer to use a little more coke, as it makes more certainty of ol)taining 
economy in the end. Our iron is used for making engines, turbine-wheels, 
and mill-castings. 

G. W. WHEELAND, Proprietor, 
W. S. BURGER, Foreman, 

j^tna Foundry and Machine, Works. 
Maucu 18, 1884. 



:u 



A.MKKKAN ( I r<i|,.\ I'KACIICK. 



MONTGOMERY, ALA. 

COMMON js" CCrOLA. 

Ont,<«i(lo (liamctor "<?" 

Thi<-kii('ss <if liiiint; i>" 

Inside diaiiicttr at tuyeres 2.S" 

Lart^cst insido or iii(ltiii;;-I><>int diameter .■<()" 

Insider diaiiiftcr at eliarj;in;i-door L'H" 

ll(ij;lit from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-<lof)r K/ 

Style of tuyeres : ei;;ht 5" X 2" flat tuyeres. 

lleij^lit from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 1.'" 

Height of tuyere aljove sand bottom on back side 11" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


XJO lbs. 


Third charge of cc)ke . 


7.' lbs 


First charge of pig . . . 


400 " 


Fourth charge of jiig . 


200 " 


" " scrap . . 


300 " 


" " scrap. 


500 " 


" " coke. . . 


75 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


400 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


2fX> " 


*' " scrap 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


" " coke 


7.5 " 


Third charge of pig . . . 


200 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


200 " 


" " scrap . . 


500 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 



No. 3 Root blower; diameter main blast-pipe, \1 



Time of starting fire 



. 2..".0 r.M. I First appearance of Ihiid 



" charging first iron, 4.00 " 
Blast put on 4.iX) " 



4.45 r.M, 



Bottom dropped .... 5.30 " 



Amount of iron melted, 4,200 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 725 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to S/Jj. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 



Remarks. — The above is not as good a sliowing as wo can make. I 
take it as an average of heats run last s]>ring, of wliidi we kept a record of 
liltcuu beats. Our iron is used for geneial jobbing castings. 



Nov. c, 18S3. 



R. I. jMEALOR, 
Foreman Montyomcnj Iron Vo.'s Works Foundry. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA rRACTICE. 



371 



COLUMBUS, GA. 
COMMON 30" CUPOLA. 

Ontsido (lianiotor 42" 

Thickness of lining (>" 

Inside (liiinieter at tuycros 30" 

Larjiest inside or melting-point diameter 30" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 30" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres : flat ^" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 11" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 

Connected with the ^" opening tuyere is an air-chamber, 8" X 2^", inside 
the cupola shell. The blast is carried to this l)y means of one branch pipe, 
4" X 8" where it connects with the chamber, and 8" X 10" where it joins 
the main blast-pipe. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


175 lbs. 


Fifth charge: scrap . . 


300 


coal 


400 " 


" " coke . . 


75 


First charge: pig . . . 


1,800 " 


Sixth charge: pig . . 


300 


coke . . 


75 " 


" " scrap . . 


300 


Second charge : pig . • 


300 " 


" " coke . . 


70 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Seventb charge : jiig 


300 


" " coke 


75 " 


" " scrap. 


300 


Third charge: jiig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


GO 


" " scrap. . 


300 " 


Eighth charge : pig . . 


300 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


" " scrap . 


300 


Fourth charge : pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke 


(iO 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Ninth charge: pig . . 


300 


" " coke . . 


100 " 


" " scrap. . 


300 


Fifth charge: pig . . . 


300 " 







Six more cliarges, continued per order shown in last two charges, 

48" shell, four-blade, home-made blower, main blast-pipe 12" x 12", 

Time of starting fire . . 1.30 r.M. 

" charging first iron, 3.45 " 
Blast put on 3..50 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3..59 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.51 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,600. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 21i. Im. 



Amount of iron melted, 10,200 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,525 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron ii.sed, 1 to (t-fjyij. 

Remarks. — One piece for an .amraoni.i ice machine in this he.it weighed .'i.SOO pounds, 
and had to be poured with clean, hot iron, in order to stand a test of 273 pounds press- 
ure. We cast every day, but never use our large cupola, 00" x 36", unless we have 
some one jtiece that takes over 7,000 pounds of metal to pour it. Our chief work is 
engines, saw-mill and cottou-machiuery castings. 

ROBT. E. MASTERS, 

Foreman Columbus Iron Works Foundry. 
Ai'KiL 10, 18S4. 



.)(li AMKlilCAN cri'Ol.A ritAClKK. 

PALATKA, FLA. 
COMMON -l-l" CII'OF.A. 

Outside diainoter .'V." 

Tliickiicss of lining 7" 

In.si(k' (liiinictiT at tuycn-s '.'J" 

Liir^icst in.si(l(! or intiltint^-poiiit dianit'tcr '_"_'" 

liisiili' (lianiottT at c'liarKin;i-<l(i(ir '_'"_'" 

IIiMj^lit from bottom plati- up to hottoni of tliargiiig-door IKfi" 

Styk' of tnyeriis : tlin;e :U" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere ]!>" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 15" 

Three 4" branch-pipes carry tlie blast from the main pipe to the cupola's 
tuyeres. Two of the branch-pipes arc 8' long and one 2' long. 



Fuel used for be<l : coal 


cm lbs. 


Third charge of scrap . 


800 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coal 


100 " 


" " scrap . 


.SOO " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


100 " 


" " coal . . 


100 " 


" " scrap 


800 " 


Second charge of pig . 


100 " 


" " coal . 


100 " 


" " scrap . 


8(J0 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coal . 


1(X) " 


" " scrap . 


800 " 


Tliird charge of pig . . 


100 " 







No. .') Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 8"; length IGO'. 

First appearance of tluid 



Time of starting fire . . 0.00 a. m 

" charging tirst iron, 11.00 " 
Blast put on 1.00 p.m 



iron 1.1.") P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 3.;K) " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 4,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consvimed, 1,000 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 4.^. 



Fluidity of iron melted, XXX. 
Length of beat, 2h. 30m. 



Reji^vrks. — Our foundry is new, having run only fourteen heats up to 
date. "We use No. 1 Gleugarnock Scotch pig. 



D. J. JUSTICE, 
General Fortnian Florida isoulheni li.Ii. Works. 



Ai'Uii. '.'■.;, 1S84. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA rRACTICE. 



373 



MARYSVILLE, CAL. 

COMMON :«" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 4"" 

Thickness of lining 5^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 32'' 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 32" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 32" 

Height from bottom i)late up to ijottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres : four 5" round tuj-eres made tapering at the point. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15" 

Hi'ight of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 100 lbs. 

coal . 400 " 

First charge of pig . . . 2,500 " 

" " coke . . . 200 " 

Second charge : pig . . . 1,000 " 

" " scrap . . 1,000 " 



Second charge of coke 


. 300 lbs 


Third charge: scrap . 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke . 


300 " 


Fourth charge: pig . 


. 1,000 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,000 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10". 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 r.iM. 

" cliarging first iron, 3.15 " 
Blast put ou 3.45 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.00 r.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 0.00 " 



Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 8,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,;jOO " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to (Jx^^. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 15m. 



Remarks. — Our work is engines and mining machinery. 



Nov. 12, 18S3. 



O. H. WESCOTT, 
Foreman Marysville Machine Works Foundry. 



:i71 



AMI'.KKAN ( ri'OI.A I'I:A( I Id:. 



THE DALLES, ORE. 
COMMON .1" fl I'oLA. 

Otitsi(l<> (liniiiptcr 4.'." 

TliickiH'Ss of liniiirj ,1'." 

Iiisidi- (liaini'tt-r ill tiiycri's :n" 

Larp'St iiisidt- (ir iiu'ltiii;;-|i()iiif (liaiiiftcr "M" 

Iiisiilf (liamottT iit cliarjiiii^i-ilddr '.W 

Ilcit^hf from liottoin plati- ii|) to hottoiii of (•liarj;iii;;Hloor K/ 

Style of tuyeres : seven 4" round tuyeres. 

Height from liottoni plate to l)ottoiii of tny<Te.s 11" 

Height of tuveres above sand boltouj on baek ^side 4" 



Fuel used for bod: eoke . r.d lbs. 

coal . 500 " 
First tliar;4e of 

jii;; and serap, L'.OflO " 

'" coke .... '-'."0 " 
Second charj^e of 

pig and scrap, 1,.S00 " 

" coke .... ir-0 " 
Third cliarjje of 

pi;i and scrap, l,r)00 " 

" coke .... 100 " 
Fourth charj;(; of 

piy and scrap, 1,000 " 



Fourth cliart^o of coke . . 100 lbs. 
Fifth charge of 

l)ig and scrap, 1,()00 " 
" " coke .... KX) " 
Sixth charge of 

l)ig and scrap, 1,000 " 

" " coke .... KX) '• 

Seventh charge of scrap . 1,000 " 

" coke . 100 " 

Eighth charge of scrap . . 1,000 " 



No. 7 Sturtcvant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12", 

l.I'.O p. 51. First appearance of fluid 

;!.fK) " iron 4.00 p.m. 

.".4,5 " Bottom drojiped .... r).40 " 



Time of starting fire 

" charging first iron 
Blast put on .... 



Revolutions of blower, 2,S0C. Kind of fuel used, English coke and 
Lehigh coal. 



Amount of iron melted, 10,.')00 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, l,4r)0 " 
riati(j of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7^^. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5.jm. 



llE.MAiiKS. — The class of work made is machinery and railroad castings. 
I AYith the first six charges, a small per cent of scrap was used. The blast 
is admitted to the tuyeres through a wind-belt 11" X 7". 

JOHN LEWIS, 
Foreman Dalhs Cur Tiailroud Works Foiindnj. 
Feu. is, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUrOLA rUACTICE. 



375 



PORTLAND, ORE. 
COMMON 23" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 32" 

Thickness of lining r>" 

Inside diameter at tuj'eres 22" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 24" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door , . . . 23" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door „ , o , . 9' 
Stylo of tuyeres : four i" round tuj'eres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere o » . 12" 

Hoight of tuyere above saud bottom ou back side , „ 6" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


2r>0 lbs. 


First charge of pig . . 


1,000 " 


" " coke. . 


150 " 


Second charge: pig . . 


500 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


Time of starting fire . 


2.00 P.M. 


" charging first iron 


2.30 " 


Blast i>ut ou .... 


3.30 " 



Second charge of coke . , 75 lbs. 

Third charge: scrap. • . 1,000" 

" " coke ... 50 " 

Fourth charge: scrap . . 500 " 



First ajipearauce of fluid 

iron 3.45 p.m. 

Bottom drojiped .... 4.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,500. Kiud of fuel used, English coke. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 3,500 lbs 
Amount of fuel consumed, 525 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Gyo%- 



Fluidity cf melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is stoves, hollow ware, and jobbing. 
The blower used is an old-fashioned wooden one, made by hand. The iron 
came down very hot. The pig used is Glengarnock Scotch. 



Feb. is, 1S34. 



JOHN MONTAG, 

Foreman Novelty Iron Works Foundnj. 



aid 



MMI.IINf; STKKI,. 



MKI/riNC STKKL IN AN (»l:l>IN\KV :;o" cC I'ol, A 

n>H. 



FutI for licil : rokc . 

roikl . 

KlrHt chnrKc : |>iK • 

" " t<(k(! . 

Bccuiid charge : \nu 

" " Hcni] 

" " coke 

Third charge : piir . 

" " fcrikp 

" " coke 



II.H. 

•J.HI 

•."(HI 

I/.'IHI 

fiO 

:iiH) 

iVI 
50<l 

aiH) 
50 



LTUp 

coke 

Kifth charge : \>\k • 

" " Kcrap 

" " coke . 

Sixth ciiargc: pig . 

" " Hcrap 

" " coke . 

Seventh charge : pig 



3<NI 

:»Ni 

llMI 
.'WKI 

:j(Hi 
M 

.'iOO 



ScM-iilh cliarge : Hcmp 

C.lk.' 

Kighlh cliarge : pig . 
" " i>cnip 

" " coke 

" " coal 

Ninth charge: Hle«-I . 
" '• coke . 

Tenth charge : cleel . 



lb*. 

, :iu) 

.'lO 

, :iuu 
. atw 
. luu 

, IOO 

. 1 ,a»o 

. 1(10 
. 1,(J(W 



Time of xtartiiig lire . . . 
Time of cliargiiig tirct iron 
BluDt put un 



■J.l'> I'.M. I Kirnl appeanmce of Ihiiil iron 

;!.!:■> " HotUjiu ilropjted 

4. -JO " 



•4 .•27 

&.4d 



RevolutionH of blower wlien on nteel, l.iKXi. Kind of fuel u«cd, liirmlnghain coke 
and I.ehigh coal. The cupola in which we niell*'d thin heat in the one given on p. 'Ml; 
an the diiueuHionH of cupola can there be seen, it is not Hhowu with tbia re{Kirt. 



Amount of Mco\ molted 

" iron melted . . 
" fuel conijunied 



TOTALS. 
2,2nn Ills. I Hatio of fuel to iron unod 
:'.,4U0 " Length of heal. . . . 
1,100 " I 



. . 0.66 
Ih. 2.0in. 



Remarks. — The " American Sfacbitiist" of .\i)g. 2;?, 1SS4, contained an account of my 
" Meltiiii; Steel in an Ordinary Cuitola." Since then, by experinientini:, we have learned 
sometbiiig of the nature of it, ancJ not only found the class of work we can use it in to 
best advantage, but have also made a decided improvement in manner of meltinu' and 
fluidity of metal. The metliod of charging is different from the account I gave in the 
aiticle referred to. We have not melted a heat of steel alone, not having occiision to 
melt more than 1,000 to •2,U0ii pounds at a time. \Vc continue to melt it right iK'hiiid the 
cast-iron portion of the heat, as above shown. As soon as tlie last charge of cjist-iron 
begins to settle away from the charging-door, we keej) the cupola fiiH of sti-el up to 
the charging-doors until the last has been put on : this gives it the benetit of a long heat, 
and when it reaches the melting point it comes down (to use the expression of a moulder 
here) "hot enough to run a needle with the point up." It is very fluid when it first 
comes from the cuitola. While it does not remain fiuid as long a.« cast-iron, I am satisfied 
a very large piece could be poured with it. I notice, by agitating it iu the ladle, it " gums 
up" around the ladle quicker than cast-iron. 

Charging in above manner, the cast-iron all melt.s down ahe.id of the steel. Then 
there is a cessation in the melting for a few minutes before the steel starts : once started, 
it melts very fast. The appearance of the metal is so different from cast-iron in the lluid 
suite that we can tell it as soon as it starts from the cu]>ola. 

The steel scrap used is of a class known as " slab, or agricultural steel ; " and we have 
melted (50,(1(10 out of the 7.5,000 pounds we had on hand, besides using un all the scrap 
tliat has been made since then. I>y itself, tlie steel runs ])orou8. I?y adding one-sixtu 
cast-iron to the charges, we find it runs the castings very close and solid, and hardi-'r 
than the steel alone. For furnace-liners, back-plates, grate-bars, brake-shoes, etc., it is 
superior and more serviceable than cast-iron. In light castings annealed, 1 feel sure 
it would make stronger castings than malleable irtni. 

Last f;ill, J. C. Albrecht, master marliinist of the railroad shops here, complained 
alxnit the chilled truck-wheels, shii)i)ed him here for section masters' handcars, cutting 
out and u'ettini; Hat places in them in a sIku^I time. We asked him to let us make a set 
of steel-rim wheels for a trial. lie i)laced an order with us for two sets of wheels, steel 
rim, 2(i" diameter, .'!.\" face, 3" thick, 1" llaniie, ten J" round wroutrht-iron spokes, set 
zigzag in hub: hub of cist-iron; weiijht of wheel, V20 iwunds. They have had to stand 
the test through the most severe winter we have had in the South for years, lluviug 
filled orders for loO since then, is evidence of the satisfaction they are gi\lug. 

The above heat was melted April '24, 18S5. 

UdRT. E. MASTERS, 
Foreman Columbus Iron Wvrks Founilry, Coluiuhus, Ga. 



MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON. 377 



MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST- 
IRON TO OBTAIN STRONG OR CHILLED 
CASTINGS. 

As a supplement to the })ie\ioiis page, the author offers the 
following few notes, which the readers wall no doubt find inter- 
esting and of value. 

The union of steel with east-iron has of late j'ears been much 
practised for the purpose of either adding strength to or 
increasing the depth of chill to cast-iron, ideas and notes upon 
which will also be found in vol. i., pp. 272, 297, 298, and 299. 
It might be well to here state that wrought-iron has also been 
used in mixture with cast-iron, sometimes being melted in the 
cupola and again mixed in with the cast-iron after it was 
melted. I have heard of its being used as high as 33 per cent 
in mixture with cast-iron melted in a cupola. 

The greatest per cent of either steel or wrought-iron which 
can be mixed in with liquid cast-iron after it is melted, will, of 
course, depend on how " hot" the fluid cast-iron is, and what 
it is intended to be poured into. I would not have the reader 
understand b^' the above term, "greatest per cent," that the 
more steel or wrought-iron there is mixed in a ladle or cupola 
with cast-iron, the stronger should the product be. As far as 
strength is concerned, I would be led to say there is a limit, 
and that it greatly depends upon what grades of steel and cast- 
iron are mixed together. The cast-iron, in order to obtain the 
greatest strengtli in product of mixtui-e, will be greatly affected 
by the amount of carbon the steel and cast-iron contain. A 
soft or low carbon steel should produce a much stronger product 
than a hard or high carbon steel ; and I have no doulit but that. 



o7S MF.I.TINf; AND MIXINH STKKI, WII H fAST MION. 

from :i cMn'riil iiiixtiut' of loiv-Cdrhon stpcl v:Hh Idv-mrho'n rnat- 
irnii, iiiiiporlioiialcly .slioii;^; c';i.stiiiu;s c-oiild l»i; pioduci'd. Tlic 
ri'sult ohtiiiiic'd from :i iiiixtiirc of liigli-carlxjii sU'el with cast- 
iron can l>o .such :ls to iin[iair the original strength of the 
( :l^t-il■oIl. 

Stcd, lus is ^Yc■ll known, conhdns less carbon tluin cast-iron, 
and mny-c than tcrom/Iit-iron, the latter sometimes containing 
)iut a trace, ('arl)on is lu-ld in cast-iron in a combined and in 
an iMicombined stale. "When coml)ined, it is chemically united 
with iron, as seen in hard or white cast-iron ; and when uncoiTl- 
liined. tin- carbon ap^icars in the foiin of graphite, a,s seen in 
No. 1 grailes of foundry soft gray iron. Ca-st-irou containing 
carbon in the graphite or uncombined state requires a higher 
temperature to melt it. than when it is chemically combined 
with the iron ; and the larger 2)er cent of chemicallj' combined 
carbon iron contains, the less heat is required to melt it. 

The more carbon there is in wrought-irou, steel, and hard 
cast-iron not only causes it to be melted easier, but also makes 
it retain its life or fluidity longer. 

Carbon can be given and taken awa}" from iron or steel. 
Fiicl will su2^phj it, and air eliminate it. AVhcu wrought-iron or 
steel is melted in a cupola, both of the above agencies are at 
work upon it ; and while we can in one sense say they are being 
weakened through oxidation, we can in another sense say they 
are also weakened through carbonization; for when steel, etc., 
is mixed in among fuel, and there melted, it cannot Init be 
affected by it, as the oxygen of the atmosphere comluning with 
fuel in a cupola creates carbonic acid and carbon oxide, which, 
when liberated in concert with other gases, — such as sulphur, 
etc. — which fuel contains, all go towards destroying the 
original strength of scrap-steel or wrought-iron scrap. 

"When we see, in the manufacture of steel, that the slightest 
jxr cent of a component can so materially change its nature, 
wiiat can we expect in the way of certainty in producing grades 



MELTINC. AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON. 379 

out of a, cupola, wIkm'c stocl is tuml)lcd in with n, conglomera- 
tion of cast-iron and fuel, of wiiosi; clieniical analysis we know 
nothing or have no control ? 

To procure a homogeneous product from the mixture of steel 
with cast-h'on, as a rule, seems to have been poorlj- accom- 
plished. The steel mixes with the cast-iron in such a manner, 
that, when castmgs arc turned or bored, hard spots or mottled 
surface often appear. 

In melting steel with cast-iron there are, however, a few 
things which can often be done in assisting to ol)tain a uniformity 
m i)erceutage of the material charged : as, for instance, did one 
desire castings made of one- fourth steel and three-fourths cast- 
iron, the material should be carefully weighed and charged ; and 
in charging the cupola, adopt the method set forth in vol. i. 
p. 304. The method there descril)ed will at least insure the 
production of the mixtuie as charged. Of course, if there were 
enough weight of the steel mixture to make a heat by itself, 
then the mode above referred to would not be necessary. 

Another point which might be well to mention in regard to 
obtixining a uniform mixture is, that the more metal there can 
be collected in a large ladle, and agitated by stirring with a 
"mixer" or wrought-iron rod, the better homogeneous castings 
will be produced. No one should expect, that, by catching and 
pouring the metal into small work as fast as it melts, the cast- 
ings produced can contain the uniformity m mixture they would 
where largo bodies of the metal are first collected before the 
pouring commences. Of course, in the case of large castings 
the metal would, through necessity, require to be collected in 
large bodies. For small castings the metal would, in being 
collected, require covering with dust, etc., in order to " hold its 
life ; " or, where it was to be made a stead }• business, a closed 
reservoir could be used ; the iron as it melted, running into it, 
could, after a body was collected, be taken out in " small taps " 
as required. There are of course many castings which will not 



.'1^0 Mil TINC AM) MIXINC SIKKI, WllU CAST IKON. 

1)0 imicli iiijiind tlironixli irrc^xiilaiity in uiiiformity of mixtiiro. 
TIu' ahovi' jxiiiits ail! himply lo yica idms to iis.si.st tlioroiijili 
and C'cuKil mixing in cases wlioic fiiio work is required. 

In clinrginir sled mixc*! with ejust-iron, or nlonr. in .1 cniirtla. 
the .stool caniioL Iml lu' injund tin'ougii cnrhonization aiul oxida- 
tion. Were air-fnrnaees or cruciMes used (which I l»clieve 
could be made practical for the purpose) for melting steel, the 
above injuries steel receives would be greatly overcome. I sim- 
\>\y liore suggest ''air-furnace" and "crucible" for the piu-pose 
of presenting something that may be of value to those inclined 
to experiment with scrap-steel to the end of o])taining strong 
castings. 

Sanuicl i\I. Carpenter of Cleveland, O.. who holds K-lters- 
patent No. 173,1;J9, awarded him Feb. 8, ISTft. upon a prociss 
for the iuimersiou of steel into liquid cast-iron, claims that cast- 
iron, in order to be strengthened by a mixture with steel, can 
only be done by melting the steel immersed in liquid cast-iron, 
thereby preventing it from contact with the blast of air which 
oxidizes the steel and impairs its strength when melted in cu- 
polas. Upon this point I greatly agree with Mr. Carpenter ; for 
in my experience with steel melted with ca.st-iron in a euix)la, 
I cannot say I thought it as a general thing to add strength to 
cast-iron. Whenever I have used or seen steel melted with cast- 
iron in a cupola, it was generally for the purpose of hardening 
or giving a deep chill to castings. Fur this purpose^ steel mixed 
vjitli cast-iron is at least effective. 

To melt scrap-steel without mixture with cast-iron in an 
ordinary cupola, as creditably pcrfonncil liy l\()1)ert E. Mastei'S, 
seen on \). ."70, and described in "American Machinist," April 
2"), 1885, has attracted great attention throughout the United 
States, and will no (loul)t be the cause of starting many others 
to utilize scr((p-steel for making eastings. Most all kinds of 
scrap-steel can be melted (l)orings, etc., are I)e,st melted by 
being packed iu cast-iron pots, etc.), and classes of castings 



MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON. 381 

found in which it may often be well utilized. The melting of 
cast-steel in cupolas, as far as manipulation is concerned, is in 
principle the same as melting cast-iron. For steel, more fuel 
and blast i)ressnre may often be required than for iron. 

Scrap-steel when melted in a cupola produces a product 
somewhat similar in nature to "white iron;" and as Mr. 
Masters writes under the head of " Remarks," p. 376, if small 
castings were annealed, I should say they would no doubt be 
similar to malleable iron, thereby making them suitable for 
hardware purposes. 

There still remains one thing to be done, and that is to have 
scra[)-steel produce, direct from the melted state, castings some- 
where near as strong as was the scrap-steel before it was 
melted. Who can best accomplish this (whether mixed with 
cast-iron or not) could, I assure them, "reap a harvest." 
There are thousands of tons of scrap-steel lying idle in the 
country. The industry of utilizing it into castings once started, 
there is no telling in what success it will end. 



382 sTKAM-rowHit cu am:s. 



FOUNDRY CllAxXES. 



STEA:\I-rOWER TRAXES. 

As an introduction to tlic followiiij^ chapters upon cranos, 
the nutlior wisiu's it uiuliTstood that n(j patents c-ovlt any of llic 
devices siiown. and that any one is at lilx-rty to use and prolit 
l)y any of tlie ideas set forth. Tlie author's mode of dealiiii^ 
with the construction of cranes is one which is not only oriirinal, 
but also one which he thinks all will agree is practical, an<l of 
real value to the mechanical engineer as well as to the foundry- 
man. 

There are two classes of cranes in general use in foundries, — 
the jib and traveller. In America, the jib crane is chiefly used. 
Tlie designs of cranes in use are somewhat like those of cupolas, 
very numerous. The designs of some cranes, so called, are 
wonderful to behold : all they lack is wings to complete their 
representation of the bird after which they arc named. If some 
of them were to fly away, their loss would ncjt cause much regret. 
There is probably no foundr}' tool formerly so illy constructed 
as the crane. Many were built b}' men who probably never 
liad been inside of a foundry until they were called upon to 
erect a crane. 

To buiUl a good working crane requires not only some science, 
but also demands observation and expi-rieuce in their use. The 
user of cranes should be one fitte<l to know their retjuirements. 
The class of crane wliicli is now reccix iiig nuu'h attention is the 
power crane. The hand crane is giving place to it, and it is 
only a question of time when the power crane will be as com- 
iiKUi as hand cranes now are. As there are many who have 



STEAM-rOWER CRANES. 383 

no idea of tlio principle of constructing power cranes, and as 
those who have like to learn of all the styles, I thought it 
best to begin the subject by the illustration of the power 
crane. In this I am greatly indebted to the courtesy of 
Messrs. Griffith and Wedge, the Niles Tool Works, and W. 
H. Thompson, M.E. 

The advantages of power over hand cranes are readily seen 
where thoy are in nearly constant use. In this city we have a 
pil)e-fouudry using several steam cranes ; under oue of them, 
at present, there are being daily cast one hundred and ten 6'' 
pipes. In making one hundred and ten pipes, it is safe to say 
two thousand crane movements are required, hoisting and low- 
ering, racking in and out, or swinging. The flasks in which 
these pipes are made, I should judge, are about thirteen feet 
long. The castings are made in a deep pit, which, of course, 
means the pipes are cast on end. To see how quickly the 
moulds are taken out of drjnng-pit, cored, cast, shaken out, 
and the flasks set, read}' to be again rammed up, would make 
one think lightning was the motive power. 

The cranes used in making these pipes were designed by 
the same person who designed the one shown iu Fig. 113. The 
crane there shown is one adapted for machiner}^ work, and is 
arranged so as to be sensitive in its operation. The pipe-shop 
cranes have four cylinders instead of two as here shown. The 
reason for having four cylinders is so as to make the racking 
and revolving independent of the hoisting gear, and also to 
save a complication of clutches, gears, etc. The crane here 
shown is not revolved by steam-power, the work not requiring 
it. Tlie crane engineer stands upon the platform, which is 
aliout four feet above the floor, or clear of flasks, etc. A 
thirty-ton crane, which Mr. Thompson lately designed, has the 
cylinders and platform about six feet above the floor. 

The steam crane here shown is operated, iu hoisting or lower- 
ing, by the lever A, and iu racking out or iu by lever K. The 




£Hd Z,°teiMi(ivi4 



Fig. 113. 



384 STKAM I'OWI'.K CIlANr'S. 

I>r:il<e-U'v<'r is :it /)'. Ilic iiiitrc wlicds. seen :it E, (ninsmit 
|)()\vt'r t(i tlic r.Mck. The ;iii;iiiLr»'iii«'iil is siidi lli:il tlic nickiii"" 
and iioisliiiL,^ oi- lowciiiii; c:in Ix' tloiie at tli(! siiiiio time. lu 
luweiiiiff heavy or liglit loads, steam is used ; and then, by 
means of tlie bral<e B, any desired speed in fall can be obtained. 
The crane can hoist slow, and have no sudden jerkin*; ; thereby 
enalilinix ns to use it in drawinjj; patterns or setting c<;res, which 
is about the most sensitive work cranes can be subjected to. 
Should it be desirable to operate the crane b}' hand instead 
of by steam power, all that is required is to place a crank 
upon the shaft, as seen, and throw the Tfand-rack chain into 
the sheave grooves, and loosen the nut at E, seen in end 
elevation. 

The cylinders are 7"xl2". Steam is carried through about 
one hundred and fifty feet of 2" pii)e, which is well covered so 
as to prevent condensation, as well as liability to freezing in 
winter season. "With a pressure at boiler of from forty-five 
to fifty pounds, the crane will easily- hoist fifteen tons. The 
weakest point of the crane is the hoisting-chain. As this is 2", 
and of best proof, twenty tons could be lifted. There is cyl- 
inder enough for thirty tons ; in fact, the same pattern is to be 
used for a thirty-ton crane lately designed. For cranes under 
fifteen tons capacity-, cylinders 5"x 10" are used. 

There are steam cranes having only one C3'linder. With such 
there is too much trouble caused by their getting on a " dead- 
centre." Having two cylinders, and cranks at right angles to 
each other, makes such a thing impossible. 

The frame of this crane is all iion, a section of which is as 
shown in the enlarged scale. In the manufacture of these 
beams, what are called heavy and light beams are made. In 
the crane shown, the heavy beam is used for the jib, and the 
light one for the mast and brace. 

In drawing the end elevation, I omitted showing a few parts 
which the close observer will n;iss. To niuivc' the crane clear, 



STEAM-rOWER CRANES. 385 

I thought it best only to show the more important points and to 
describe the rest. 

The gear B, and all upon the same shaft, seen in side eleva- 
tion, were they shown in place in end elevation, would mnddle 
up the view ; so, to save confusion, the shaft N is again shown 
at to^) of end elevation. 

In operating the crane, the gear R has motion transmitted 
from the largest wheel, W, upon the crank-shaft. The gear aS 
is fastened to the gear R; and both, like the friction-wiieel 
gear Y, are loose upon the shaft. The clutch seen upon this 
shaft works either way by moving the lever A. As it slides 
upon a key, which is fitted in the shaft, sliding the clutch to 
either side of course gives motion to the shaft, by which hoist- 
ing or lowering can be done. The gears H and F, upon the 
racking-shaft, at £", are also loose upon the shaft ; and it is not 
until the clutch is engaged with either of the wheels that any 
racking can be done. The wheel S, on shaft iV, engages with 
// upon rack-shaft E, and Y engages with F. The small 
pinion X, seen on shaft with crank handle on, engages with 
R. The diameter of the drum is 18^". The pitch-line of all 
the gears is shown in side elevation ; so that, with the above 
explanation, there should be no trouble in understanding the 
"motions." A plan of the shop in which the author daily uses 
two of these cranes is described on p. 225. He can recom- 
mend power cranes for foundry use, as an appliance worthy of 
adoption, not only on account of their speed in handling work, 
but also l)ecause they are less fatiguing to employees, as well 
as because they enal)le the shops to handle heavy work with 
the same advantage and ease during dull times, when the shop 
has but few men, as when working with a full force. 

Before closing this cha[)ter, the author would specially call 
the attention of designers to the importance of constructing 
power cranes so that they can be advantageously worked by 
hand-power. Of course, for a line of castmgs, such as or 



38(1 



STI'.AM row I, I : CUAN'KS. 



Kimilar to llio roqiiircinciits of piju'-makint; doscribod altovo, 
li:iii(l-|»()Ufr would imt In- kI" iiiutli ii>f. I'.iil for shops tliat 
iiialvf a line of m.itliiiui V cjislings, the ahility l<» opfiatc liy 
hand as well as power will often he found valuahlc ; for tiieii 
the crane can he operated, when. throiiLrli acci(h'nt to tiie hoiler 
or pipes, or otherwise, steam could not he ohlaincil or used. 




n 



FRICTION rOWER CRANE. 387 



FRICTION POWER CRANE. 

The Griffith & Wedge (Zanesville, O.) power crane shown 
opposite, is used in the foundry of tlie Niles Tool Works, Ham- 
ilton, 0. Several cranes stand in a row, and are all worked by 
one line of overhead shafting, to which power is transmitted 
b}' belt. The top gudgeon A, being hollow, admits of the 
shaft B passing through it ; and being engaged b}' the mitre 
wheels at S, the shaft R revolves the driving friction pulley Y. 
To throw the crane into power-hoisting gear, the lever D is 
pidled, which presses the friction drum against the friction 
pulle3's F and Y. 

To throw the crane into hand-hoisting gear, the shaft // and 
gear V slide out, thereby engaging the clutches at X. The 
pinion Z, also gear 3f, is keyed to the sleeve : this sleeve, of 
course, revolves upon the shaft H. When driving the crane 
by power, the gear F, which is keyed to shaft H, being, as 
shown, engaged with gear G, drives the pinion L, which then 
transmits power to gear 3/, thereby revolving the sleeve and 
pinion Z. The gears L and G, being keyed to the brake-shaft, 
make the brake operative, whether the crane is worked by hand 
or by power. 

These cranes have a platform at the rear, so the operator 
revolves with the crane. This also places him high enough to 
handily reach all the levers. The crane's frame is made of 
pine. 

One special feature is that of the carriage. It is not only a 
handy carriage, but a short one. Many cranes lose nearly half 
of their workinoj lloor area through having a long carriage. 




«Sl</c LUvation 



lO'TON rOJr-ER FOUXDltY CltAXE. 

Fig. 114. 



H 



End Elevation 



nss 



iTiU'TioN rowr.K cuank. 




slieiives 
po.sc as 



Tliciv is little sonsp in 

liiiililiii;^ a craiK' in wliic-ii 

the length of jilt cannot 

1)0 more than half ntilizt'd. 

Ono should rcnicnihcr that 

tlic! Ilooiroom located within 

the "sweep" of tlie erane 

jil) should l)c such us coukl 

l)C used for crane work. 

Some may tliink that the 
sheaves, shown in the jtlan 
of carriage, could he made 
smaller in diameter, and 
thereliy allow of a still 
shorter carriage. This 
could of course, be done : 
but tlie 18" sheaves, as 
shown, are advantageous in 
two respects, — first, they 
are easy upon chains ; sec- 
ond, they prevent twisting 
of the chain when revolving 
the crane hook with a load 
suspended from it. 

Many use a style of car- 
riage similar to that shown 
in annexed cut, Fig. 115. 

Here the sheaves, B, II, 

which the chain or rope, 

A K, passes over, are upon 

two axles. The carriage of 

the crane made by ISIessrs. 

Fig. 115- Grillitli & Wedge has 

(as shown in Fig. Ill), which answer the same pur- 

7J, 7/, Fig. n.">. uiHjn om- axle. With Fig. 1 1.') style of 



j> 



FRICTTOX rOWKR CRANE. 389 

cnn'iiigc, one can often see the hoisting-clmiii hanging ont of par- 
allel, as shown. Bringing the chains close together, as at E, is 
often done in this style of carriage, for the purpose of making a 
short carriage. When the hoisting-chain in two parts, as here 
seen, is contracted out of parallel, as at E, there is more or less 
trouble caused when turning the hook R. I have often beea 
obliged to lower down and take part of the weight off a crane 
before I could turn the hook without twisting the chains. Such 
bother as this is very annoying, besides causing loss of time. 
I think tluxt it is evident that a shorter carriage can be i)racti- 
cally worked, made after the style of the Griffith & Wedge 
carriage, than tlie one shown in Fig. 115. 

Another point which would be well to notice is that of the 
moving or racking of the carriages. There are many devices 
for this purpose. With chains there is often much annoyance, 
caused through their stretching; and, again, the chain will be 
so situated as not to move the carriage steadilj-. I see by the 
Gritlith ct Wedge design, the carriage is made, as far as prac- 
ticable, to overcome these evils. It is hardl}' to be believed 
that a chain will stretch as much as it does. I have often been 
obliged to cut out from one to two feet in rack-chains during 
the first week or so they were used. Many carriages are made 
with no provisions for taking up an}' slack. As will be seen 
at TF, a simple arrangement for this i)urpose is provided. 
Having a slack rack-chain often causes much bother, and, 
where there is no provision for taking it up, it has to be often 
taken down and cut otT, involving much labor. 

As will be seen in the plan of carriage in Fig. 114, the two 
sheave wheels are carried to one side of the carriage, in order 
t«) allow the hooks, IT and C, to which the rack-chain is hitched, 
to have a pull as near to the centre of the carriage as is prac- 
tical. jMau}' cairiages are moved b}' a rack-chain upon each of 
their sides ; again, othei's will have onl}' one at the extreme out- 
side or in the centre. The thing to be sought for, in moving a 
carriage, is that it shall move along steadily, and have no more 



:v.iO ri;i( ri'»N ro\vi:i: ciiANi;. 

frii'tion tipon one side of jih than upon th<' other. A jjood wav 
to accuiDplisli tliis is to pull with one cliaiii as lu-ar the ci'iitrt! of 
(Miiiage as possildc. To [iiiU with two chains wonld l»e lictter, 
were it possiMe to have thcni always pnll even and alike. This, 
J think it is safe to say, is seldom clone, even with the Hat link 
ehain which is the l>cst to adopt for that pnipose. "Where there 
aic two comnioii link chains pnllinir a carriage, one will often 
see first one and then the other ijnllinir, every change causing 
.1 jerk. Were the links of chains all of an excvt length, and if 
llicy wonld not stretch, then with a true pitch-chain sheave they 
could he depended upon to pull alike. 

The blocks of cranes ofti-n cause us moulders trouble. They 
are fi'eiiuenlly made so light that it requiies the hanging-oii of 
weight to pull thcni down. Again, they will be made without 
any guard, as shown at Y.*, Fig. 115, p. 388. AVitli such blocks 
trouble is often caused l)y their getting out of the sheave grooves. 
As seen in the blocks of the Grillith & Wedge crane, there is 
not onl}' a guard, but the blocks are heavy enough to pidl the 
chain down. It is not necessary that a large sheave be used 
in order to make weight. Should a small sheave be used, the 
cheeks of the blocks could readily be made heavy enough to 
aid tile weight of sheave in pulling down the chain. 

There is not quite the objection to the chains Iianging out of 
parallel, caused through small lower blocks, that is stated with 
reference to the chains narrowtng up at the upper or carriage 
blocks shown on p. 388. However, when practicable, it looks 
and works better to have the lower sheaves large enough to 
cause the chains or ropes to hang parallel. 

Driving-power for cranes is not limited to the two modes here 
shown : some use hydiaulic power. The latest means is the 
enii)loynn'nt of electricity. How successful or practical its 
a|)i)lication for foundry cranes will prove, is yet to be seen. 
Tile i)rinciple involved in regard to power, as shown in the two 
cranes previously described, is no doubt at present the most 
practical ones for foundry use. 



i-ii of J J, 




HAND-rOW2R IRON CRANE. 391 



HAND-rOWER IRON CRANE. 

Although power cranes have mauy advantages over hand 
cranes, the simple mechanism of the latter is alone a factor 
which will always command attention. The simplicity of hand 
cranes is snch as to allow their being made by almost an}' Arm, 
whereas the power crane will often require to be " built out- 
side." 

A few years since, the frames of cranes were almost entirely 
made of wood ; but at the present time many are made entirely 
of iron, the low price of iron making this construction nearly as 
cheap as when made of wood. Iron is really the proper mate- 
rial. Iron cranes not only look neat and light, but they are 
durable, and will keep their original shape. Wooden cranes, 
tln'ough unequal shrinkage, get more or less out of shape, 
thereby often causing trouble with carriages, gears, and chains. 

The iron hand crane (Fig. 116) of Messrs. "Webster, Camp, 
& Lane, Akron, O., which I am enabled to here show, is very 
simple in construction and readily worked. The end elevation 
shows the crane as one would see it if viewed from the front. 
The gears are shown engaged for " fast motion." To engage 
for " slow motion," the pinion A is pushed into contact with 
the gear B. The cranks, or handles, are removable, so that 
for either speed two handles may be used. 

Some cranes are so arranged that the handles always remain 
upon the one shaft. In such cases they are generally secured 
by means of a nut or pin upon end of, or through, the shaft. 
"NVliere handles are not thus secured, they should, as sliown at 
F, have plenty of shaft length. In this, as well as other fea- 



E^dtfJA 




Fig. 116. 



'?f>2 llAND-roWllH IKdN (IIANK. 

tiircs of the crane, the cxin'riciiic of inactical iiicii is seen. 
Sonic may think this sliaft (picstion one of minor importanfo. 
I know it's a simple thin;:;, and one to wliicli, liy many (U'si<;n- 
ei-s, no allcntion is jjaid. A liandlc that rctjuircs to be ehanj^cd 
from one siiaft to anothei' necessarily re(|niros a very easy fit. 
Where tiie sipiare part of sliaft is so short as with many cran<'s, 
the handles can readily work off without its l)ein<; iioticc<l. 
Tlicrt' are many liesides the writer who could testify to this 
often lia\ iiii2; occuired, and to serious accidents caused thcichy 
that would have been avoided had there been more len5j;th of 
handle shaft. The increased length not oiil)' gives a better 
chance to notice any workinj;-off of handles, but also provides 
Jiiore room to guard against errors upon the part of thoughtless 
foundr}' helpers. 

The principle involved in the plan of carriage here shown is 
one which the reader will remember is favorably conunented 
ui)on, p. 387. A point which much simplilies the crane's frame 
construction is having but one girder for the mast. This is 
best seen iu end elevation of the crane. 

One of the most modern features of this crane is the use of 
wire ro[)e for the sustaining cord. AVirc rope would, no doubt, 
in years to come be the must popular sustaining cord used, were 
it not because its duralulily demands much larger drums and 
sheaves than chains. 

John A. Koebling & Sons, Trenton. N.J., manufacturers 
of wire ropes, and who are taken as authority upon strength of 
wire ropes, in one of their tables, call for the drum and sheaves 
in crane shown iu Fig. IIG for steel wire ropes to be over .'i' in 
diameter ; the drum in crane, as shown, being l»ut 'IW diamett'r. 
The use of such large drums and sheaves as table calls for is 
not veiy practicable in fouiKby crane construction. 

The Koi'bling table (p. .")'.;;)) certainly gives sizes, which, if 
used, will increase the length of lime ;i lope will last, compared 
with the use of smaller sizes. \\ hat niaiiv would, no doubt, 



IIAND-l'OWER IKON CRANE. 893 

like is fi table that would tell them how small drums or sheaves 
could be used without serious injui y. Iii our foundr}' we use 
a V' iron wire rope (hemp centre), on the core-maker crane, 
the drum of which is 8^' diameter. Koebling's table calls for 
a drum for this sized rope to be 18" diameter. The rope coils 
around the drum very readily ; and, although in use six montiis, 
there is no apparent injury done to it yet. Before putting this 
rope upon the crane, it was passed over a charcoal tire, and 
heated about as hot as the hand could bear. While hot, it was 
soaked in a pan of oil; then, after being put up, the roi)e 
was kept well coated with a mixture of oil and black lead. 
Throughout our works, there are several wire-ro[)e cranes ; 
and all of the ropes are ke[)t well coated with oil and lead. 
There is no question but that wire ropes are much benefited by 
behig kept well lubricated, and that when so attended to small 
drums or sheaves ma}' with much success be used. 

For the area, there is nothing to equal the strength of a steel 
rope. In the case of the crane shown in Fig. 11(3, the rope, 
bj' Roebling's table, would oulj- have a safe lifting capacity- of 
about five tons. To break the rope, a load of about twenty 
tons would be required : therefore a load of twelve tons could 
be occasionally hoisted without breaking the rope. 

In using wire ropes for foundry cranes, the lower blocks 
should be made heavy enough to hold the rope straight, and 
pull themselves down. This evil overcome, the wire rope 
makes an excellent sustaining cord, and has points which rec- 
ommend its use instead of chains or hemp ropes. The use of 
chains often causes more or less jerking ; and they are treacher- 
ous, as tiiey break without giving any warning. 

Hemp ropes are o1)jectionable on account of their short life 
and theii' clumsiness. If daily used, the}' are not worth nuich 
at the end of a year. The heat and dam[)ness of a foundry 
soon destroy them. 

Wire ropes will hoist steadily, arc neat and light, and will 



3:>4 



llAND-l'OW i;il IKON CllANi;. 



ol'ti'ii irivc waiiiiiig licfoit' tlicy lucik'. Alioiit tlic only oltjce- 
tioii Id llitir use is tlicii" n'(|iiiiiii;^ siicli hirirf <liums and slieiivi'S 
lo insiiif llicir longevity. Ni'vcrtlifli'tss, tlicre is oni' tiling witli 
ciani'S in tin-ir favor: that is the slow speed witli wliieli the 
rope is wound around slu-aves ami diunis, thereliy practieally 
permitting the use of smaller sheaves and (hums than where the 
ropes run with a vel(K'it\' sueli as is obtained with ropes used 
for driving ninciiiuery, etc. 

JOHN A. ItOEHLIXCr'S SO\S CO.'S STAXDATtD IIOISTING- 
KOI'KS, WITH NINETKKX WIKJIS TO THK STI.'AM). 













Proper 


Cirt-iinifcr- 


Miniiniiin 




C'irc'umftT- 






Breaking 


workiiiK 


ence of 


size of 


'rr:ule 


uiR'c in 


Diameter. 


Btrain in 


load in 


Ilerap Hope 


drum or 


Xo. 


iucbt-H. 






tons of 
2000 lbs. 


tons of 
2000 lbs. 


of e<|nal 
slrcnjfth. 


Hbeave in 
feet. 




Cast 




Cast 




Cast 




Cast 




Cast 




Cast 




Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


1 


GJ 


6i 


2\ 


2i 


74 


1.30 


15 


20 


1.5^ 


_ 


8 


P 


2 


G 


6 


2 


2 


G.-} 


100 


13 


21 


14^ 


- 


7 


8 


>j 


5.^ 


H 


1^ 


n 


54 


78 


11 


17 


13 


155 


6i 


7i 


4 


.'J 


5 


n 


n 


44 


G4 


<» 


13 


12 


14i 


5 


6 


5 


45 


4'1 


n 


n 


39 


55 


8 


11 


Hi 


13i 


45 


5i 


5i 


^ 


- 


n 


- 


83 


- 


Gi 


- 


lOi 


- 


4i 


- 


6 


4 


4 


u 


n 


27 


39 


5i 


8 


9^ 


IIA 


4 


5 


7 


3i 


3^ 


li 


n 


20 


30 


4 





8 


10 


3i 


4i 


8 


U 


Sk 


1 


1 


16 


24 


3 


5 


7 


9i 


3 


4 


9 


2J 


2? 


I 


I 


m 


20 


2i 


4 


6 


8 


25 


35 


K) 


2i 


2i 


5 


i 


8. 04 


13 


1? 


3 


5 


6i 


2i 


3i 


lOi 


2 


2 


» 


£ 


5.13 


9 


li 


2 


4i 


5i 


2 


3 


io.i 


IS 


1^ 




rs 


rl 


4.27 


0.^ 


i 


li 


4 


45 


15 


25 


JO^l 


H 


n 


1 


J. 


3.48 


5), 


1 


1 


o 1 


4i 


li 


2 



i;OF.F.LIX(; S XOTKS 0\ TilK TSKS OF WT1!E IJOPE. 

Two kinds of wire rope art- iiiaiiut'aclurcd. Tlu' most pliable variety 
contains nineteen wires in the strand, and is generally nsed for hoisting 



ROEBLINGS NOTES. 395 

and running ropo. The ropes witli twelve Mires, and seveti wires in the 
strand, are stiffer, and are better adapted for standing-rope, guys, and 
rigging. Kopes are made up to 3" in diameter, both of iron and steel, 
upon special application. 

For safe working-load allow one-fifth to one-seventh of the ultimate 
strength, according to speed, so as to get good wear from the rope. 
AVhen substituting wire rope for hemp rope, it is good economy to allow 
for the former the same weight per foot which experience has api)roved 
for the latter. 

Wire rope is as pliable as new hemp rope of the same strength: the 
former will therefore rmi over the same sized sheaves and pulleys as the 
latter. But the greater the diameter of the sheaves, iHilleys, or drams, 
the longer wire rope will last. In the construction of machinery for wire 
rope, it will be found good economy to make the drums and sheaves as 
large as possible. The minimum size of drum is given in a column in 
the table. 

Experience has demonstrated that the wear increases with the speed. 
It is therefore better to increase the load than the speed. 

Wire rope is manufactured either Avith a wire or a hemp centre. The 
latter is more pliable than the former, and will wear better where there 
is short bending. 

Steel ropes are, to a certain extent, taking the place of iron ropes, 
Avhere it is a special object to combine lightness with strength. 

But in substituting a steel rope for an iron running rope, the object in 
view should be to gain an increased wear from the rope rather than to 
reduce the size. 

Wire rope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. All untwist- 
ing or kinking must be avoided. 

To preserve wire rope, apply raw linseed oil witli a piece of sheepskin, 
wool inside, or mix the oil Avith equal parts of Spanish-brown or lamp- 
black. 



H'X) HAM) r(J\Vi;ii WUUJJKN C'ltANhS. 



IIAND-rOWER WOODEN CRANES.^ 

Altiioucii iron is the inodcni nintciial for crMiic fiaines, 
wood will, lio doultt, contiime lo be imicli iist'd. 'llic fact that 
tiiiibor i.s ol)tuinabk' in almost any section, that it is chc:ii) in 
first cost, and that local skill is easily available to design and 
frame it, are points which will command attention, and keep 
W(jod from falling into disuse. The timber chiefly used for 
cranes is pine, maple, and oak. There are probably more piiic 
cranes than all the others combined. The species of i)ine gen- 
erally used is the yellow or red i)iiie. The red Canadian i)ine, 
found from the Pacific to Canada, is the j-ellow pine of Nova 
Scotia and Canada. The limber is much esteemed for its 
streugtli and durability, and is used greatly for ship-masts, 
etc. The i)itcli pine of Carolina and Georgia is noted for its 
strength and dura))ilitv, in which (pialities it surjiasses others 
of its class. Maple is chiefly found in North America. For 
strength, it is superior to pine, and by some authors is placed 
ahead of oak. jNIaple being a sweet "wood is apt to "doze ; " 
l)nt if in good shape when framed, and given a coat of paint, 
it will i-cmain sound much longer than were it not thus treated. 
Oak, like pine and maple, has several species, and for its 
strength and durability is greatl}' prized. It is especially 
adapted for exposure to the weather in a damp climate. Its 
species ai'c found in almost all parts of llie countiy. Live 
oak is genei'ally considered the lu-st. It grows on the coasts of 
the (iulf of INIi'xico, and as far north as Virginia,. 

' 'riiis and (lie followiiii; iIiiim- cIiMptcrs, with i-xci'ption of some addilious, the 
aiilliur liiij (ii'tel ajipi-ar in " Iron Trade I{e\ii.:w " of C'levt-land, O. 



HAND rOWER WOODEN CRANES. 



397 



The timber used for cranes is generaUy reonlnled more by 
uliat can be readily procured, ajid in the best shape, than 
from choice or preference of kinds. The following table, show- 
ing the transverse strength of woods, is deduced from United 
States Ordnance Department experiments, conducted by Hodg- 
kinsons, Fairbairn, Kirkaldy, and Haswell ; power reduced to 
uniform measure of one inch square, and one foot in length ; 
weight suspended from one end as illustrated by Fig. 117. 





Breaking 


weight. 






Brealiiiig 


weight 


Ash 


. . 108 lbs. 


Oak, 


white . . 


. . 150 lbs. 


" English . . 


. 160 




a 


live . . . 


. . 160 




*' Canada . . 


. 120 




a 


red, black 


. . 135 




Beech .... 


. 130 




(« 


African . 


. . 207 




*' white . . 
Birch .... 


. 112 
(160 






English . 
Canada 


(105 

■ i 157 

. . 146 




Cedar, white 


. 160 




Pine 


, white . . 


. . 125 




Elm .... 


. 125 




" 


pitch . . 


. . 137 




'• Canada, red 


. 170 




(. 


yellow . . 


. . 130 




Maple .... 


. 202 




" 


Georgia . 


. . 200 





In the construction of foundry cranes, the strains timber is 




Fig. 117. 




Fig. 118. 



subjected to arc chiefly transverse strains. The transverse 
strength of a timber is that which it would stand were it laid 
horizontally, being supported at one or both ends, and loadcid 
until it broke, as illustrated by Figs. 117 and 118. 

It is often remarkable how strength and liahtncss can be 



:)!is 



iiAND-i'owi.u \vooni:N CIIANI'.S. 




coiiiliiiitMl liv tlif jii<li<ioii.s ns<' of iii:it( ri:il in tlic iiinkiiiii of 
t'HiU. wlicllii r ii:iii"'s <>i- ;iiiy oilier kiiwl dI' m.-nliiiin v. 

1 lie form u;ivrii to tiinlK-i-, uikI the way it is fraiiu-tl, liave 
niiicli to do with its relative strength, as ^^ 

will 1)0 si-en by the followiiif; example 
for Figs. 11 !» and 120. To ascertain 
the relative sectional strength of tinil»er. 
mnlUjiJy the square of the dcplli hi) the ..„ ^ ^„ 
thiikuess. Fig. 120. 



Fig, 121. 



EXAMPLE. 



Square of depth 16 

Thickness 4 

Kelative strength 04 



Fig. 122. 



Square of depth 04 

Thickness 2 

Kclalive strength 128 



In the sections, Figs. 119 and 120, we have the same area, 
or niunl)er of square inches ; but by having the area in the 
oblong or rectangular shape, as per Fig. 120, we have a 
timber that will stand double the load that such a one as Fig. 
119 would, were both to have the load applied on their respec- 
tive surfaces, ^and K; the timbers to be either supported at 
one end, as per Fig. 117, or supported at both ends, as per 
Fig. 118, and same length between, or from their support. 
There are many cranes whose frames would have been much 
stronger had the above principles been more strictly adhered to 
in construction. The following gives the fundamental princi- 
ples for finding the transverse strength of beams : — 

" Trcoisverse streu(/th of a beam is inversely as its length, ajid 
directh/ as its breadth and square of its depth, and, if cylin- 
drical, as the cvbe of its diameter. That is, if a beam C long, 
2" broad, and 4" deep can carry 2,000 lbs., another beam of 



HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES. 399 

the same inatcrial, 12' long, "2" broad, ami 1" deep, will only 
carry 1,000 Ihs., luMnu; iuvi'rsoly as its lenutli. Again, if a 
beam G' long, 2" broad, and 4" deep can snpport a weight of 
2,000 lbs., another beam of the same material G' long, 4" broad, 
and 4" deep will support doulile that weight, being directly as 
its breadth ; but a beam of that material G' long, 2" broad, 
and 8" deep will sustain a weight of 8,000 lbs., being as the 
square of its depth." — Templeton. 

" Ti'lien one end is fixed and the other projecting, strength is 
inversely as the distance of the weight from the section acted 
upon ; and stress upon any section is directly as the distance 
of weight from that section. 

" IVJien both ends are sv]^ported only^ the strength is four 
times greater for an equal length, when the weight is applied 
in middle between supports, then if one end only is fixed. 

" When both ends are fixed^ the strength is six times greater 
for an equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle, 
than if only one end is fixed. 

" Beams of wood, when laid with their annular layers vertical, 
are stronger than when they are laid horizontally, in the pro- 
portion of eight to seven. 

" The lower end of a tree will furnish the best timber." — 

II AS WELL. 

Accompanying this chapter, two wooden framed cranes are 
shown, which will not only give ideas in framing, but present 
valuable points in constructing jib-cranes for foundry use. 

The twent3'-five-ton crane (Fig. 121), shown on p. 400, is 
"triple-geared," /i" being the "first motion," B the second, 
and P the third. The shaft of pinion, A", is such as will slide 
out, thereby disengaging the first motion wlienever it is desir- 
able to operate the crane by its second or fastest motion. The 
" third motion " is not operated by crank. For some it might 



400 



ir AM) i'()\vi;u \vf>oi)i',N cuani'.s. 



]}Q well to s:iy thai the tliii(l iiiotiun is ikMimI for tlic purpose 
of iiK r(:i>iii;j, the pmsir. Sumr immv tliiiik it <>(1<1 that tlio 
l)itclics wi-n' not more pioportioiu-d, the lirsl :in<l second motion 
Avheels being both of same piteli. This was, no doubt, cuused 










Fig. 121. 



thiouirh the desire to make one pattern answer. One thinp; in 
its favor is. tliat the pitch is lariiei' tlian llie first motion actually 
requires. Were the lirst motion 1 j" pitcli, it would have been 
strong en(Migli. AVhcu one comes to consider that the pattern 



IIAND-rOWER WOODEN (MtAXKS. 401 

wns (Irnwn 1.',", po ns to mnko the " second motion " fjears 4}/' 
Iju-o, wheivtis the lirst motion is o" face, he will find tliat the 
proportigu of tlie second motion is not far ont of the way. 
Did one desire to snbstitute a If" pitch for the H" pitch, in 
" second motion." the number of gear teeth would be 74, while 
the pinion would require 18 teeth. The link of the rack-chain 
sliowu with tills crane is made of wrought-iron. At F \s a ^" 
Hat iron bent around solid links fin diameter; the flat link 
bi4ng held by a rivet through its centre. 

One of the valuable and striking features of this crane is 
the manner in which the jil) is l)raced. It is a good plan, and 
one worthy of notice. Tlie under piece, H, greatl}' strengthens 
the jib ; and by its use and the tie rods E E, one of which is 
upon each side of the crane, the necessity of biaces D and i2, 
as shown in the ten-ton crane (shown on p. 402), is obviated. 

The question of bracing up the jib of a crane is an important 
one, not merely on account of giving the jib pi'oper support, 
but to make the height of hoist capable of being operated as 
far as possible. Crane carriages and braces are two things 
that are often so blunderingly designed as to shut otf much 
of what should be the craue's working floor area. 

The idea that should be prevalent in bracing jibs of cranes 
is to have, as far as possible, all the area for height of hoist 
(^)ne can. Some cranes are braced in such a way that they 
destroy fully one-third of what should be good moulding-floor 
area, simply on account of the braces allowing so little room 
for height of hoist in towards the crane's centre. 

lu the ten-ton crane shown on p. 402, the main brace Y, 
where it connects with the jib, is, as seen, 9' 4" back from the 
jib's end. The brace R coming acutel}' to it, as shown, allows 
of the crane's hoisting near the full height up to the jib for 
fully one-half the jib's length. This crane is one used in the 
old part of our founcby. As this portion is not very high, 
we are allowed but about IG' from the floor level up to the 



lOli 



HAM) I'dMKIl WOODKN CliANES. 




iiiuk'r tjide of tlu' jil) i'vv Uolsi ; so tluit the jib, liciiiu; bi'aci'd as 
shown, allows about all the availal)le height of hoist that it is 



IIAND-rOWER WOODI'.N CRANES 403 

consistent to ex}icct in wlmt is termed a " low ernne." "\V(m-o 
the crane as high as tlio twent3'-five-ton crane sliown on p. 
400, we would of course, by the style of bracing shown on 
p. 402, increase the jib's length for height in hoisting. 

Another feature of the bracing in the ten-ton crane worthy 
of notice is the mode by which the joints of the braces are 
ironed. As a general thing, braces are held in place by means 
of cast-iron "cheek-pieces," which are not onlj^ cumbersome 
and chimsy-looking, but ranch more costly to produce than the 
wrought-irou brackets here used. As regards the durability of 
this style of fastenings, it can be said that the}^ have stood the 
lifting of heav}' loads over ten years, and at this writing the 
joints appear as firm as the day they were put together. 

During my life's experience with using cranes, I have yet to 
see the crane that can always be revolved with the same ease 
in all directions. The powerful leverage effect which weights 
hung from jibs have upon buildings, more or less causes the 
masts of cranes to be out of plumb, and is often such as to 
cause fears of the buildmg's being pulled over. I have worked 
in shops where it was often a necessity to hold the crane from 
swinging by means of ropes ; and also have woi'ked in shops 
where almost every move of the crane would cause some of its 
bricks to fall down. Of course such operations only show that 
the shop was not strong enough for the leverage of the crane. 
'J'liis is a point too often neglected or not provided for in 
Ituilding foundries intended for crane or heavy work. Such 
bhops cannot be built too strong. I doubt if there is a shop in 
the country but moves more or less every time a jib crane is 
rotated. Often b}' the moving of an unusually heavy weight 
a shop will be strained so as to receive a " permanent set," and 
thus cause tlie crane to be badly out of plumb. One great 
trouble with almost all cranes is the lack of some arrangement 
whereby cranes, when they receive an out-of -plumb " perma- 
nent set," could be ex[)editiou8ly adjusted. In some shops 



|(l| HAM) l'(i\\i;i: wooDI.N (HANKS. 

Ilicv iidjust liy li:iii;riiii: W(i'j,lits fidiii ti" ciiiiic's jili. Tliis. jtiit 
iiilti iiilc t'onii, would irad: '•'!'() adjust a crane, move the 
bi(il<liny." A thill!!; all ri;^lit t-noiijih, provided the buililiii'^ 
can lu' given ti " peimaneiit set" U> (stay in ahunt the Hanie 
position. 

The manner in which top j^ndccoon.s are gonerally inca.sed in 
cranes canse.s tiieni to Iteconic more or less honnd when cranes 
get ont of pluml). To overcome the i-vils arising from such 
efftH'ts. we use, as seen at 7', a round cap which tin; gudgeon 
can ri'adily accommodate to any incline tt) which the out-of' 
pluml) crane may oscillate it. The cap T, as si-en. covers tlic 
gudgeon so as to kci'[) it free of the dust which collects upou 
beam, etc. In this cap are tw(j small oil-holes for the purpose 
of keeping the gudgeon well lubricated, a thing which nuist 1)e 
attended to before one need expect to have a crane revolve 
easily. 

On p. 393 the question of cranes, when loaded, getting the 
control of the operators, was touched ui)on. That such things 
have often luipi)cntMl. most users of cranes can testify. In 
some cranes a ratchet (shown, old style, p. 402) is used. This 
is only of service while the hoisting is being done. ShouUl the 
crane through any cause "get away," it cannot be stopped 
until all the " mischief is done." 

Shown b}' plan and side views is the sketch of a brake and 
ratchet wheel wdiich are attached to the crane as shown. This 
brake is formed of two parts, best seen in plan view. The 
outer part V. which contains the internal ratchet, is loose upon 
the shaft. The inner part, which contains the springs and tia- 
ra tchet pawls seen at YY, is fastened by set screws or keyeil 
to the shaft. Sui)posing the crane to lie hoisting, the direction 
W would take would be that shown by the arrow. The pawls 
1"!' turning the leverse way of the ratchet notches are sprung 
out by the sjjrings in IT. as they pass them liy. Now, should 
tlu' crane through any cause attempt to " get away," 11' would 



HAND-rOWER WOODEN CRANES. 405 

then, of course, turn the opposite way to the iirrow directions, 
and in doing so the pawls would catch the notches ; and as the 
ratehet part V is held by the brake straps G and L^ the crane 
cannot, of course, run down. Should it be desirous to lower 
by means of the brake, all that is required is to operate the 
brake wheel A, seen in side elevation of the crane. The 
ihechanisni of this little machine rightly entitles it to the des- 
ignation of a safety ratchet-brake. 

The racking device of this crane is one woi'thy of notice, 
as it is no doubt the best that could be adopted for carriages 
that are pulled l)y two chains. The trouble that pulling car- 
riages with two chains generall}' causes having on p. 390 been 
commented upon, the subject will not be here discussed. This 
carriage is pulled by having a chain composed of malleable- 
iron links (one of which is seen at Fig. 123) passed over the 
sheaves 3fM, and bolted cto the wrought-iron bar K, seen in 
the plan of carriage. These links being all of the same pitch, 
and the sheaves 7^/3f, over which the chain works, being very 
accurate in pitch also, the carriage must necessarily pull very 
s juare, and without causing much friction upon the sides of 
the track. The track, as will be seen, is formed by railroad- 
rails. The way tracks are generally made is by simply using 
flat bars. The using of the rails shown not only makes a rigid 
track, but also helps to strengthen the jib, and presents very 
little friction surface for the carriage-wheel rims to work upon. 
Altogether this original idea is one that works well and is worth 
noticing. 

Shown by the ten-ton crane, the distance of the shaft upon 
which the crane handles are seen is 3' above the floor-level ; 
this is about the right height to place shafts for convenient 
working, or operating of the crane's handles. While the above 
is the most convenient height for shafts, the^' can be worked 
higher or lower ; the limit to their convergenc}' from the above 
heiiiht should not exceed 8" below or above the 3'. 



[OC) HAND I'OWI'.U \V0()1)I;N (•I(\NKS. 

Tilt' •icnrs ill all of these oniiics sliow the arms jind rims 
stioiiLjiY eoiistnicttil. This is soinethiiig too often neglected. 
1 liave yet to see any goar'.s teeth fraetiireil from '•'■ jiure. 
strains," hut many arms aii<l rims have I seen break from the 
same. IMany arms and lims have been known to break in 
wheels that had their teeth worn half away. A thing that 
slujiild be kei)t iu mind is, that all wheels have m<Me or less 
strains that will exist in their rims and arms as long as the 
wheel remains whole. It is practically impossible to cast wheels 
that will be entirely free of strains. AVhecls may run for years 
ami all at oiiee lireak under comijarativel}' a light load. Could 
the shrinkage (or, properly, contraction^) strains lie annulled in 
castings, they would then often bear double the working-load. 
The teeth of a wheel are more free from eoutractiou strains 
than any other portion of a wheel that can be mentioned. Did 
the strains exist in the teeth, that is, in the arms and rims of the 
wheels, it is safe to say the teeth would not stand to be worked 
down to as thin a body as many can be found so worn. 



' The two terms "shrinkage" and "contraction," properly deliiied for foundry 
practice, tihould apply "fihrinkage" to action of metal when in u lii^iud islatc; " cou- 

Uacliou," to tlie action of metal after becoming BuUdilied. 



rOST CllANKS. 407 



POST-CRANES. 

Posts in a moulding-room will by almost all raouklers be 
conceded as being more or less of a nuisance. If it were only 
the "floor area which posts occupy that was hampered or lost, 
posts would not be so objectionable. To describe why posts 
are so undesirable, is not the purpose of this article. As posts 
are often a necessity, the desire is simply to set forth ideas 
showing how posts may, in some cases, be utilized for crane 
purposes, and much moulding-floor area thereby saved. 

If it is necessary for a post to be " stuck up " in a moulding- 
room, and in its locality- a crane is desired, there is decidedl}' a 
great gain if the post can be made to auswer both purposes. 
There are many places where a crane is erected in close prox- 
imity to a post which could as well as not have been arranged 
so as to auswer the purpose of the crane's mast, and thereby 
have given a "clear swinging crane," and an unbroken radius 
of moulding-room area. The non-utilizing of posts is some- 
thing that would not have often occurred, were the designers 
informed as to ideas such as this article is intended to illustrate 
and set forth. 

About all the difference there need be in construction between 
post and pivot cranes is the matter of revolving. For cranes 
under ten tons' capacity, the writer sees no reason why they 
could not be constructed so as to revolve as easily as pivot- 
swung cranes. For the construction of post-cranes up to three 
tons' capacity, there is probably notliing used that presents a 
more simple and better working design tlian that illustrated on 
the revolving principle set forth in the poat-crane shown. (The 



408 rosT cKANi'.s. 

word " cMpacity," wlicicvci- used with rcfcicucc to frniics, 
means the aiiioiint of \vei;4lit a ciaiic can safely carry, and not, 
as many moulders lliink. that wliieh is almiit siillieient to lireak 
tlie crane down. ) 

At lirst ulancc, one sees liardly any tliinu to rlistin<^uisli the 
crane from an ordinary jil»-cranc, the piineiple of hoistin;^ and 
lacking iK'ing practically the same. The dillercncu is mainly 
conHned to the jaws /''ami /J, they being constructed so as to 
allow the crane to revolve around a stationary cohimii or post. 
A plan for top jaws is shown by Figs. 1 l' "» an<l \'2'.K 'iliese 
are made so that most of the crane's weight comes npon anti- 
friction rollers held l)y them. As shown at X and above /*'', 
tlu'se points ])eing where the greatest fiiction is generated, the 
rollers, of course, greatly prevent its ))eing created. In fact, if 
the rollers arc projected sufliciently to have the crane's weight 
come upon them, the amount of friction there generated would 
be hardly worth taking notice of. The greatest point of friction 
in this crane is upon the collar A. Some might think the dead 
surfaces there in contact would be sufficient to require a dozen 
men to revolve the crane when heavily loaded. As this crane 
is one recently designed by the '• Cuyahoga AVorks," and daily 
seen used by the author in this foundry, he can say that if the 
collar A is kept well lubricated, the crane will swing around 
about as easily as a pivot-crane of like capacity. Should one 
wish to prevent all the friction ))ossilile, he conld be much aided 
by making tlu; sui)porting collar .1 u\)im the piineipU- si't forth 
in Figs. 127 and 128. The round balls or conical rollers shown 
are by no means any thing original ; they have in othi-r tilings 
for years back been used as friction pieventives, and thi-re is 
no reason why the principle cannot be turned to a good account 
in constructing post-cranes. In fact, for instance in the post- 
cr.ane shown, were these balls or conical I'ollers used at the 
flange yl in concert with the rollers X and F, the crane would 
no doubt far suri)as.s pivot-cranes as far as ea.sy swinging is 
cuneeiiicd. 



rOST-CRANES. 



409 



The braces and jib of the craue as shown are constructed of 
wrought-iron bars, l|-"x6". If it were desired to construct 
thoni of wood, for a crane of a])out like capacity, it could be 







Fig. 124. 

done by constructing the jaws B and F wide enough to take a 
jib 3"xl0", and braces 3"x8", and having the sides of the 



410 rosT-ruANKs. 

ti>|i JMw J>I> iiKidr from (')" to s" longer, so ns to fjivc moro 

SUpliiill to the jilt. 

It will lie noticed lliiit tlio top jaw (Fig. \2'>) is in:i(lo so that 
it can he placed after a post has heen set up. After the jaw is 
set ui)on the collar ^1, the piece // is placed in, ami a l)olt put 
through the two. The jaw then answers the same purix>se as 
if it were one solid casting, as per plan seen in Fig. Tilt. The 
plan Fig. 12!> is, of course the; strongest, and often the West to 
adopt where circumstances will i)ermit. 

The constructing of a post-crane does not always necessitate 
the erecting of a post csi)ecially for that purpose. It may be 
that one would like to use sf>ine post that is standing. With a 
jaw, as per Fig. 12.">, it can be utilized without the post being 
taken down. Should the post reipiire to have a collar to sup- 
port the top jaw, ideas aie illustrated in Fig. 130, showing how 
a casting made in halves could be bolted on to a square or 
round wooden or iron column. 

The diameter or square of a post or column may not be 
entirely regulated by the capacity of crane desired. The 
weight a post will have to support may often call f<jr a much 
stronger one than the capacity of the crane would require. 
When posts are erected for crane purposes, it is a good plan to 
raise the beams by means of jack-screws and timl)ei"s ; so that 
when the post is set up the building's load ma}' be let down so 
as to rest solidh' upon it. This not only insures the post sup- 
porting its intended load, but it causes the top of the post to 
be more firmly held when the crane is loaded. 

It is, of course, understood that the above does not mean 
that posts are to be erected for the special i>urpose of making 
a crane : it is only where a post is required to support a build- 
ing, and in the same locality a crane is desired, are they advo- 
cated. The building of post-c-raucs is not advised except 
under circumstances which w ill not permit the use of a clcar- 
swiugiug pivot-crane. 



rOST-CRANES. 411 

A peculiar fcnturo of this crane, which will no doubt attract 
the eye of many, is that of the racking arrangement. The 
movement of the carriage is done by means of an endless 
"racking-chain " passing over two 6" loose sheaves at K; from 
thence over the sheave E. This sheave, as shown in Fig. 131, is 
chucked into the pinion H, and both the pinion and sheave are 
loose upon the shaft D. As this sheave and pinion is made to 
revolve by means of the racking-chain, the spur-wheel S which 
is keyed on to the shaft iV revolves the truck-wheels W TF, 
thereby' moving the carriage. Cast on to the wheels WW are 
pinions which mash into the rack seen upon the side elevation 
of the crane. This rack is used for the purpose of insuring 
the carriage travelling square when heavil}' loaded. While this 
form of a racking device is quite a novelty and a success, as 
far as working is concerned, in point of cheapness it cannot be 
said to have much advantage over the style used in the twenty- 
five-ton jib or travelling crane shown (pp. 400, 414) , From this 
it must not be inferred that the style shown in post-crane would 
work well upon the ten or twenty-five ton cranes shown. For 
loads over three tons, such a style of carriage should give place 
to those shown with the heavier cranes. 

For holding up the lower jaw i^, bolts TT, as shown, are 
used. The construction of this lower jaw is simplified by 
making the cheek-pieces M so as to be secured to F by means 
of set screws. A plan view of the lower jaw F is seen in 
Fig. 12G. The width between the cheek-pieces M in con- 
structing a crane will be regulated by the length of drum 
required. For the same number of feet in height of hoist, the 
length of a drum can be much loss where wire ropes are used 
lustead of a chain for the sustaining cord. This, of course, 
means tliat in both cases tlie same diameter of barrel is used. 
For wire rope it is best to use the barrels as large as practica- 
ble, and they should be larger in diameter for wire than chain 
sustaining-cords. As this crane is only intended for loads up 



^112 I'OST-rUANKS. 

to one Mini a half tons, it is liiit sin^lo-f^carcd. To fonstnict 
one for loads iaiigiiM4 from two to five tons or upw.iids, it would 
rt'fjiiiiv that the crane ho doiilik'-gcarcd, a thin;^ which can he 
applied to post-cranes as well as pivot swinginif-cranes. 

The construction of the lower jaw in the crane shown is such 
as to l)rin!j; the lower end of the hraces up fully five feet clear 
of the lloor. This will allow one's moukling up within ahout 
two feet of the ci'ane's post ; and also give good height in hoist 
when working undei' the hraces. The fraine-W(»rk of the crane 
shown is sti'oiig enough to carry a hjad of three tons, and is, 
as all frames of cranes should be, stronger than the sustaining- 
cord. 



TUAVELLING-CIIANES. 413 



TRAVELLING-CRANES. 

Tnr. hnnfl tvaA'olling-crane sliown on p. 414 is one which tlie 
author has dcsigiiod to ilhistrate principles and ideas Avliich he 
thinks would work well in hand-travellers for foundry use. 

The capacity of the crane is intended to be ten tons. The 
arrangement of the hoisting and racking of the crane is in 
principle similar to those used in jib-cranes. 

For moving the traveller upon its longitudmal track, a shaft 
connected to the two wheels /SaS is operated by the bevel-wheel 
X and the pinion F, as shown. 

Moving "hand-travellers" lengthwise in a shop, is usually 
a troublesome performance to arrange ; so much so that I 
doubt if in this particular point a ten-ton "hand-traveller" 
can be made a success. I do not call a traveller a success that 
requires an army of men to move it when heavily loaded, nor 
are they a success when they cannot be made to travel much 
faster than a snail. 

A^'llile this crane is presented for ten tons eapacit}', it should 
be understood that such loads should be handled only occa- 
sionally. If it is desired to handle daily from six to ten tons, 
I would advise the traveller be operated by other than hand- 
power. In reality I do not believe " hand-travellers" can be 
made to move properly for foundry use with much more than 
five-ton loads. 

In designing the gearing for this crane, I thought it best 
to make it " triple-motioned," in order to save the necessity of 
employing six or seven men to clin)b up into the pendant to do 
the hoisting for heavy loads, which would be the case if the 



11 1 



I UAVI'I.I.INC (U ANKS. 



^I'Miin^ well' oiilv '' <l<)iililc-iii«)tiiiiH'<l." \\'iUi llio frf.'uiiiu :is 
shown, Iwn iiii'ii slioiiM '" iiKiiiMLif lli«' fiiiiic." I'^r ln-uvy 
loads they would use llic liijilod or shjwest Sl>c'ed .sliuil H. For 



•iiiiSi 




Fig. 132. 

linliter loads the hnndli-ts can lie used upon citlioi' of the olhcr 
two shafts shown ; and tiiiib tluy can hoist with incivased 



I'RAVF.LLING-CRAXE.S. 415 

speed. In lowering; loads the crane can be manipiilalcd by 11i(> 
brake s^)\vii, if desired. The bra]<e intended for uhv. is that 
described as a " safety brake," and is shown on p. 402. 

Tlie racking of the carriage, and moving of the traveller 
lengthwise npon its longitudinal track, are so arranged that one 
shaft B answers for both purposes. This is best seen in the 
"plan of bridge: " the sheave A there seen is ke3'ed on the 
shaft B, while the sheave K is loose. Into the end of the shaft 
at //, there is screwed a set-screw for the purpose of keeping 
the sheave K in its proper place. Instead of the set-screw, 
there could be a collar used by having the shaft a little longer. 
The pinion F is a part of the sheave A", and thus will revolve 
whenever the sheave A" is rotated. 

The arrangement of the sheaves A and K is such that the 
hand racking-chain passes down each side of the pendant so as 
to be out of the way of the handles. The chains ma}' T)e run 
through the platform to within a few feet of the floor, as seen 
at E E in the end view. The advantage of this will be that 
the sheaves A and A" can be worked by help below as well as 
above. The sheave AT, being the one that operates the moving 
of the traveller, should be a regular chain-sheave in order to 
give the chain as good a purchase as possible. Of course 
there w'ould be no objection to sheave A, which operates the 
carnage, being also a chain-sheave. 

For assistance in climbing into the pendant, there could be 
a ladder arranged so as to slide up and down one side of the 
pendant, and a counter-balance weight used for holding it up 
in concert wMth a rope for pulling it down. Some use a rope- 
ladder ; which will, after the men have climbed up into the 
pendant, be pulled out of the way. Where a traveller is kei)t 
in almost constant use, a poorer arrangement for getting up 
into the pendant can be more practically used, than where the 
crane would be but occasionally used ; for in the former case 
the men would only require to climb up three or four limes 



41() TKAVl.l.l.INfi-CKANI'.S. 

flmiiiL; IIk' iImv. w lii't'cMs in (he hitler cmsc llicv nuLjIit li;tv<' to 
cliiiil) vi'iy (»rit'ii. 

The whri'l.s of tiic traveller «S".S", ,S'.V. have their axles run in 
nnti-frietion rollers, as seen at 3/, in the "end view of the 
hridjfc-trncks." 

The shaft IT, to wiiich the l>fvel-<iear X is keyed, nutates 
the two wheels ,S''.S'. 'J"h(' shaft heinij eoiiplecl, as seen, allows 
of its heiiisi easily attached to the axles of the wheels. Coiip- 
linu; tln' wheels to one shaft makes their revolutions positively 
alike, and tiiei'ciiy aids the erane to travel squarely upon its 
longitudinal track ; a vi'ry essi-ntial elenieiit in making a trav- 
eller a success. 

The wheels S' S', SS. arc grooved cast-iron ones. Some in 
constructing wheels for use in very heavy travelling-cranes 
shrink on a steel or wrought-irou l)and lor forming the gioove 
part of tiie wheel, similar to that shown in Fig. 13o. The 
reason for doing this is so as to make the feather or rim of 
the groove strong enough to resist any side-pressure that may 
he brought to bear upon the groove's rim through any uneven 
travelling of the crane. In regard to the expansion and con- 
traction of a traveller, it might be thought it would be too 
great to permit the use of groove-wheels. It is found, how- 
ever, that in out-of-door structures such as bridges, etc., the 
greatest difference winter and summer, the two extremes in the 
temperature, can cause in the length of one hundred feet, is less 
than I". As fift}' feet is about the greatest span yet given 
"travelling-cranes," we see then from the above that f" upon 
each side is the most we would have to allow for. Now, this is 
hardly worth noticing, when we consider that grooved wheels 
are not retjuired to be the exact size of the rails upon which 
they travel. Single flanged wheels, similar to car-wheels, are 
seldom used for "travelling-cranes," as they are not so good 
as grooved wheels for aiding the crane to travel squarely. 

As the hoisting-chain, where it is attached to the drum and 



TRAYELLING-CRANES. 417 

passes over llio sheaves, is not shown, it might be well to state 
that the 'chain in leaving the drnm passes np over the sheave //, 
from thence to the sheave F\ then clown and np throngh the 
lower blocks as shown to the sheave E\ and from thence to 
the eye-bolt T, where the chain is held. 

The sheaves P' and X' shown are those over which the 
carriage racking-chains work. 

The crank-handles seen in the end elevation of pendant arc 
upon the " second motion " shaft ; R being the " first motion," 
and L' the " third motion." 

A question often asked is : "Which is the best for foundry 
use, a "travelling" or "jib" crane? Some think that trav- 
elling-cranes are all perfection, and in some cases they may be : 
but, like most machines, they have their objectionable as well 
as their commendable points. 

The element most commendable in travellers is their leaving 
the moulding-floor of a shop clear from central-post obstruc- 
tions ; but whether a " traveller " or a "jib" crane is the most 
expedient to adopt with reference to speed in turning out work, 
will depend upon the class of work to be done, and the form 
of a shop. Take a shop, for instance, that is long, and where 
it is necessary that oven-work metal or castings should l)e con- 
veyed a distance farther than one jib-crane could reach : the 
traveller then is decidedly the more advantageous ; that is, if it 
moves with desirable speed. Changing from one jib-crane to 
another in moving loads lengthwise of a long shop is very slow 
work. But where work is of such a nature that it may be 
completed upon the area encircled by jib-cranes, then the jib- 
crane has the advantage. It does not follow, that because a 
shop is long, its crane-work can be most expeditiously done with 
travelling-cranes. A traveller might often be convenient for 
delivering the metnl and castings ; ])ut the loss of time that 
shops experience where the men often require the use of a crane 
during moulding-hours, caused by having to wait for it to be 



41 S tuavi;i.i,in(;-(i:ani:s. 

l)r(iu;j;ht from snino otlur portion of llu- sliop, iniiilil ofti-ii he so 
serious as to make tiie little a<lvaiit:i_<ic gained l»y the delivery 
of the metal or eastiiitf-s to he far from inakiii}^ the traveller a 
profitable tool in the end. 

^lany think that hecansc a travelling-crane can j^o from one 
end to the other of a shop, it can do all tlie crane-work eapahle 
of heini; moulded upon the area ovi-r which it travels. 'J'his is 
seldom praetical)le. If a .slioj) is of any size, and has an r)rdi- 
naiy number of mouhU-rs woikinj; upon moulds often requiring 
the use of a erane, there should be two travelling-cranes: 
though the work may often Ite done with one traveller, yet the 
disadvantage and loss to the linn fioni the necessity of "wait- 
ing for the crane " may often in the end be much more than 
the saving in expense by purchasing but one ; and not only are 
two travellers necessary to prevent waiting, but are often 
essential in assisting the handling of moulds that require two 
cranc-ladloe to pour them, etc. 

Another false idea many have concerning travelling-cranes 
is, that they leave the total area of a shop-floor available for 
crane-work. "With man}' travellers, if the area that is lost ou 
account of the bridge's trucks, as at L or G, preventing the 
crane's hook from coming up to the shop's end, were taken into 
consideration, and also the area lost along the side of the shop 
through the operations of the pendant, it would be found that 
not much more of the area could be utilized than if the shop 
was filled with jib-cranes suflicient to utilize its floor-area ; but 
that portion of the shop's area lost through travellers as above 
described, is far from being as valuable as that lost through 
ji]»-cranes. Having the central portion of the area of a shop 
all free, is generally of more value than where the sides and 
ends are free, and tlic ciiitral portion "cut up" with the masts 
of jib-cranes. 

Some travelling-cranes are so constructed that the hoisting 
and racking gearing are placed so that the operators stand upon 



TRAVELLING-CRANES. 419 

the top of the traveller ; this is veiy objectionable for foundry 
use, one reason being they place the operators out of sight and 
proper heai-iug. A traveller for foundry use should have its 
gearing so as to be manipulated below the crane-bridge ; for 
then the operators are given every chance both to see and to 
iiear, as in the crane here shown. 

The bridge of the traveller here shown is a " built-up " one. 
In order to save that labor in the building of medium travellers, 
some use I-beams braced with stay-rods, as seen in Fig. 134. 
Where the span is not too great, and the intended loads are 
below eight tons, the I-beams may often be used without the 
bracing shown in Fig. 134. 

Travelling-cranes should be braced sideways, as well as in 
other directions, on account of the tendency of the bridge to 
spread apart when the crane is moving heavy loads. In bra- 
cing sideways, some persons adopt a system of stay-rods similar 
to that shown for under-bracing in Fig. 134, but others brace by 
means of wide flanges, etc. For making the crane shown, stiff 
sideways, the plates NN, Fig. 135, are used. If the " span " of 
crane shown should exceed the length given, then a stronger 
system of bracing would be necessary : this would consist in 
using wider flanges than at NN, Fig. 135, or else bracing with 
sta^'-rods, etc. 

The "span" of the travelling-crane, as shown, is about 
twenty-five feet. So far as the principle of its working is con- 
cerned, there is nothing to prevent the span being made any 
length desired; but the longer the "span," the deeper and 
stronger in proportion must the bridge be made. 

In any length of span, the distance 22" and 6', shown between 
the dotted hooks and the wall of the shop, would remain the 
same : only the distance between the dotted hooks shown is 
that which would be changed by any alteration in the length 
of the span as here shown. 



420 GliAUINf. I I' ( liAM.S. 



GEARING UP CRANES. 

Willi. K in the iiiodcni (k'sijrns of cianes sliowii in this work, 
plans of gearing arc well illustiate'il, a biiof explanation of prin- 
ciples involved will for many be found iuteresting and useful. 

The principle involved in gearing is the same as that found 
in the lever. The ratio ivJiuh the orbit thttt the crank-hamUe 
travels bears to the sjnice through zvhich the block moves in the 
same time, is the same relation as that wliicli the two ends of a 
common lever bear to each other. The following serves to 
illustrate this: A crank-hniidle having a radius of IG", in 
)i;ukiiig one revolution, would traxel tlirough a circumference 
of about 100". If, in turning this handle one revolution, a 
crane's l)lock would move through a space of 1", the leverage 
of the crane would be about 1 to 100. 

♦The crank-handle is but the long arm of a lever. Its length, 
and the motive force applied to it, determine its power. In a 
crane, for instance, having a leverage of 1 to 100, ever\' pound 
exerted upon the crank will correspondingh' increase the num- 
ber of hundred pounds which can be hoisted. 

The power an ordinary man exerts upon a crank, when 
hoisting a crane, ranges from fifteen to fifty pounds. For a 
short time he could exceed the fifty pounds ; but for general 
practical use he should not be expected to exert more than 
twenty pounds, the crank travelling with a velocity of 220' per 
minute, which in a cinnk of 1(>" radius is nearly equal to 2(>A- 
revolutions jx-r minute. 

In dt'signing tlic gearing foi- a ci:uu>, it nuist lie remembered 
lh:(t to rjain poirer vithont a sacrifice m spe^d can only lie done 
by iiiereasiiig the iiioti\ e power liy wliieli the eranc is operated. 



GEARINO UP CRANES. 421 

The " power of a crane" is but the product oi force ^ lever^ 
age, and time. 

The heavier the weight to be hoisted, the hunger time will be 
necessary in proportion when the same motive force is used. 
A crane which would require twenty revolutions of its crank to 
hoist the block one foot high has but half the power of a crane 
where forty revolutions of a crank are necessary to hoist the 
block the same height ; this of course means where both cranes 
have the same amount of friction. The loss of power in cranes 
through friction ranges from twenty to fift}' per cent. A crane 
may be so badly constructed that where a hundred pounds of 
force are exerted upon its cranks, onl}' fifty pounds are effective 
in hoisting the load, the balance being used in overcoming 
friction. To construct a good working crane, much judgment 
and care should be exercised in the construction of its gear- 
ing and shaft-bearings, and when used they should be kept well 
lubricated. 

To increase the power or pull of a crane without increasing 
its motive force, can be accomplished by any means which will 
decrease speed in hoisting. Plans which are generally adopted 
to accomplish this end are, first, by means affecting the " gear- 
ing-up " of a crane ; second, by means of multiplying parts in 
the sustaining cord, as set forth in chapter on page 42G. 

Ol3taiuing power or leverage in the crane by gearing is not, 
as some suppose, confined to the multiplication of "motions." 
The different number of motions given to cranes are simply 
for the purpose of increasing or diminishing its speed, and for 
convenience in procuring power by the use of the limited space 
allowable in the construction of cranes. A crane, if it were 
piactical to use enough space, could be made as powerful with 
one motion as if it had two or three motions. To illus- 
trate this idea, we will suppose the ten-ton crane seen upon p. 
402 constructed so as to have the same power or leverage with 
'' one motion" as it now has with its " two motions." As the 



422 fil-.AKIN'i II' (UANI'.S. 

crano i.s now goaiod, lln' crank wl en njon its first motion 
travels about is/i" for every 1" it raises the l)locks. To liave 
this same leverage oi power ol' 1 to l^i.'i in the al)ove crane \s\\\\ 
a sinjiU' motion or speed, llie wheel upon tiie drum's shaft would 
re(iuire to l>e made with the 1/" i)ilch, having '»28 teeth; and 
the iiinioii. li;i\iiiLC eleven teeth, as thei'e shown, would then 
re(iuiie tiie crank to turn the same numlter of revolutions it 
now does in raising the l)locks one foot high. Now, to show 
the impracticahility of using a wheel having ;328 teeth (leaving 
out the question of utility in ha\ uig differi-nt s|)eeds), it is only 
necessary to state liiat a wlu'cl 1^" pitch, having 528 U-eth, 
would be al)out 24' G" diameter. 

In gearing a crane, the jtitch generally used ranges from 
1" to 1|". The pitch of u gear is the distance from centre to 
centre of two adjacent teeth measured u[)on their pitch-line. 

The j)itch-line of a wheel is the line tangent to the circum- 
ference of a circle i)assiiig througli the point of contiict of 
the teeth of two whe-jls when engaged, and is about midway 
])etween the extremity and root of a tooth. 

The extremity of a loolli is the outmost face, and the root 
that which joins or forms the face of the rim of the wheel. 

The class of wheel-gearing most used for cranes is that 
termed ^ si)ur-w heels." There are two other kinds of gear- 
ing, — bevel and mitre wheels, which are also sometimes used. 

A spur-icheel is a wheel having its teeth per[)endicular to its 
axis. 

A mitre-wheel is a wheel having its teeth at an angle of 45'^ 
witli its axis. 

A bevel-zcheel is a wheel having its teeth at an angle with its 
axis. 

" To compute the pitch of a xoheel. — Dividi' the circumference 
at the pitch-line by the number of teeth. 

" ExAMiM.K. — A wheel 4U" in diameter reqniies 7.') teeth: 
Wiial is its pitch? ;5.1I IC x ID ^ 7;") = l.(;7.'):)". 



GEARING UP CRANES. 423 

" To cnmpvto the cluimcter of a ivhed. — Multiply tho numbei' 
of toc'tli by the piU-li, and divide the product by 3.1416. 

"• KxAMi'LK. — Niiinl)er of teeth iu a wheel is 75, and pitch 
1.G705'''. What is the diameter of it? 

75 X 1.G755 ^ 3.141G = 40"." 

Haswell. 

"Where two gear-wheels engage each other and one is smaller 
than the other, the smaller is called the " pinion," and the 
larger the " wheel." When in contact, the ratio of their revo- 
lutions IS regulated l)y the number of teeth each contains. 

To Jind the number of revolutions m a j)inion to one of a 
tcheel. — Divide the number of teeth in the wheel b}' those in 
the pinion. With a wheel having 96 teeth, and a pinion with 
16 teeth (96 -^ 16 = 6), we see the pinion makes six revolutions 
to every one of the wheel. 

In cranes the smallest pitch is used for the " first motion," 
those used upon the last motion being larger. This is done 
because the nearer to the pull of a drum a gear is, the greater 
strain there is upon the teeth of the wheel. 

The strength of teeth, and relative proportion in depth of face 
to pitch of teeth, are well illustrated b}' the following formulas, 
given b}' the Walker Manufacturing Company, Cleveland, O. 

"The durabilit}- of the teeth of gears, under the same cir- 
cumstances, is nearly in a direct proportion to their breadth, 
and inversely as the pressure. The strength of the teeth of 
gears is directly in proportion to their breadth, as the square 
of their thickness, and inversely as their length. For example, 
if we double the bi'eadth we only double the strength ; but if we 
double the thickness, or in other words double the pitch, keep- 
ing the original length and breadth, we increase the strength 
four times : but as the length of teeth commonly increases with 
the i)itch, this circumstance must be taken into view ; for if we 



42^ 



(iKAKINf; ir CUANKS. 



(loiililc till' tliickiirss :iii(l 1i'Ii<j:IIi ;it tin- saiiu' tiinc (iisis common 
111 inaclicc), \vc oiilv doul.li' tlir stiviigtli, in whu-h casL' llic 
slienglh is cliri-ctly us tiie pitch. 

"The stress on the tooth of <^o:irs is as tiio prossmo and 
inversely as the velocity- For example, if the pitch lines of 
one pair of wheels move at the rate of 1 ,000 feet per minute, and 
another pair of gears, in every other respect under the same 
circumstances, moves at the rate of TjOO feet per minute, the 
stress on the hitter is double that on the former. 

'•.STAXDAr.I) FACES FoK SlTi: CliAIN. 



Pitch. 


Face. 


Pitch. 


tact. 


Pitch. 


Face. 


Pitch. 


Face. 


¥ 


H" 


If* 


5r 


21" 


8 J" 


' 4' 


12' 


r 


H" 


1|" 


5^ 


3' 


9" 


4i' 


13» 


r 


If" 


2" 


6" 


H' 


{)" 


H' 


14" 


r 


2" 


2V 


Ql" 


SJ" 


or 


1 4|' 


15" 


1" 


21" 


2^" 


1" 


3f 


10" 


5' 


10" 


n" 


3" 


2|" 


r 


Si" 


lor 


■ 5}' 


IT" 


n" 


3.i" 


] 2^ 


<1" 




WV 


' .V/ 


IS" 


ii" 


4" 


' 2^" 


'i" 




W 


i '^r 


l'.»" 


H" 


H" 


2%" 


8" 


31" 


11" 


6" 


2U" 


If" 


5" 


I 








' 





1" pitch by 2i" face will 

on pitch line, with a 
1 J" pitch by 3^" face will 

on pitch line, with a 
11" pitch by 4i" face will 

on pitch line, with a 
If" pitch by r^l" face will 

on pitch line, with a 
2" pitch by 6" face will 

on pitch line, with a 



" Gvurimj. ^ 

transmit 1.40 horse-poAver at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight. ^ 

transmit 2..'32 horse-power at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight. ^ 

transmit 3.S4 horse-power at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight. ^ 

ti'ansmit .'3.48 horse-power at lUO' per minute, 
safety of eight.' 

transmit 6.83 horse-power at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight.' " — Walk kk. 



' L'lliiuatc tensile Btreiiglh, 30,000 pouiiUd per square inch. 



• GEARING UP CRANES. 425 

Before closing tliis chapter, it may be well to state that the 
reason for not introducing " worm-gearing " in any of the chap- 
ters on cranes is, that, for general foundry use, its principle is 
not so well adapted as " spur-gearing " shown. 

The author's opinion of worms vs. spur-gears on cranes 
coincides so closely with that published .in " Industrial World," 
that the following extract is quoted : — 

" A worse objection to the use of a worm combination is the 
difficulty of providing for a change of speeds without the use of 
more fixtures, in the form of clutches, and an additional worm, 
than would need to be provided for doing the entire work if the 
spur-gearing were used. With this form of multiplying fixtures, 
the change from fast to slow is made without trouble, by the 
simplest kind of an end movement of the hand-shaft, the pawl 
being thrown in for the moment if the change must be made 
while the load is hanging. In fact, for most kinds of lifting 
which, in weights to be moved, fall within this friction limit 
referred to, a single nuiltiplication, from tlie hand-shaft to the 
chain-drum, by the use of a very large spur-wheel, can generally 
be made which shall very closely meet the ratio of any worm 
likely to be used. In cost of attachment to the crane frame, 
the preference cannot be against the spur-gearing, when the 
need of a change of speed, and room for a proper length of 
chain-drum, are considered." 

As a modifier to the al)ove, the author would say, that, for 
cranes run by other than hand-power, "worm-gearing" may 
often be made to answer all practical requirements, but for 
hand-power cranes he could not appro\e of their adoption 
for foundry use. 



l-ii Mri.iiri.viNi; rAurs in ckaM'; chains. 



MULTIPLYIXr; PARTS TN CRANE rilAIXS. 

In all the cranes shown in lliis woik, the KkuI is to bo carried 
n})on "two-part" chains or wire rope. TIic strciii^tli of cliaiii.s 
when nsc<l in two parts is i^ivcn in vol. i. [». 12.'!. 

^\'lu■ll the capacity of a crane is lo be ovei' (li:it which a two- 
[lart 1" chain conld safely hoist, then it is better to increase 
the number of parts rather than to use heavier chains. 

For large cranes, intended for a load of over twent}' tons, 
the l)locks can be constructed having from two to fom- sheaves 
or more. For every sheave a block contains, we have double 
their number in parts of chain by which to carry loads, so that 
with a block having four sheaves we have eight parts or single 
chains to carry the weight. 

In multiplying the parts of chain or rope in "blocks," we 
correspondingly increase their lifting capacity. If a tico-pm-t 
\" chain will carry twenty tons, a four-part 1" chain will cai'ry 
forty tons. The single part of the chain or rope, wliich runs 
froui the upper block in tlie crane carriage to the crane drum, 
has the strain upon it due to its ratio to the uunil)er of chains 
u.sed ni tlie blocks: thus, if the blocks have the four 1" chains 
carrynig forty tons, the one part leading from the drum ui) to 
top block has only one-cpiarler the weight to carry, which is ten 
tons. 

As the number of i)arts m chains or ropes in " blocks " mul- 
tiply, so in like proportion does the length to be wound around 
the drum of the crane nicrease. As an example, if in any 
of tiie cranes shown, their sustaining cord be increased from 
tile two parts u|» to four, six, or eight pai'ts. tlien their di'ums 



MULTIPLYING PARTS IN CRANE CHAINS. 427 

would require to be enlarged sufficiently to receive doulile the 
four, six, or eight times the height of the hoist of the crane. 

Tlie more parts of chain nsed on any of the cranes shown, 
the slower would be the speed in hoisting or lowering the crane. 
Should the cranes be geared up, so as to increase the speed, 
then more power would be required to operate them. The mul- 
tiplying of parts in chains or ropes is in one sense but the 
"■gearing up " of a crane ; for it decreases speed, and whatever 
decreases speed also diminishes the power required to operate 
it. The relation of speed to power cannot be changed by any 
manipulation in gearing up: the higher we "gear up," the 
more proportionally we diminish speed and increase power. 



428 



HOOKS. 



HOOKS. 

"WiiF.RF, francs exist, hooks ;uo iicr ossary. "Whilo in point of 
style tliey may diller, yet in ])iiMei|»le they are all alike. Tliere 
are two modes generally adopted in making hooks ; one is to 
flatten that portion of the iron which forms the hook, while the 
other is to leave the hook ronnd. Figs. 13G and I'M represent 
the round and the flat liook. Wishing to learn the relative 
strength of the two styles, I had several hooks made from one 
1^" round bar of iron, and tested through the courtesy of tiie 
Otis Steel Works, Cleveland, O., by their " Olseu testiug- 
machinc." 





Fig. 136. 



Fig. 137. 



Tlio process of testing was not onl}' very interesting, but in- 
structive as well ; for, as the load or weight was applied, the 
stretch, or " opening out," of the hook was measured and was 
noticeable to the eye. What surprised the writer was the fact 
that the round hooks required on the average about as much load 
to break them as the flat hooks did. The average breaking 
load obtained was about 13,000 lbs. The lonnd liooks would 
on an average commence to open out wlun a load of aljout two 



HOOKS. 



429 



tons was applied : whereas it would take about three tons to 
cause any weakening or opening out of the flat hooks ; and 
when they did commence, the opening out was ver}' slow as 
compared with that which the round hooks showed. 

Some idea of the opening out of the respective styles can 
be formed from the dotted line T R. At Fig. 136 we see 
the round hooks : // shows the form before any load was applied, 
and E shows the hook as it looked when it commenced to break. 
A few of the round hooks opened out much more than E illus- 
trates, before the}^ broke. In Fig. 137, B shows the form of 
the flat hooks before any load was applied, while D represents 
their form when they commenced to break. The breaks seen 
at A and JVshow about the point of first fracture, and may be 
rightly said to be the portion of a hook that the greatest strain 
comes upon. 

The flat hooks, Fig. 137, were made or forged from the same 
\\" round bar as that from which the round 
hooks. Fig. 136, were made. In making 
hooks, some construct them after the style 
shown in the crane hook, Fig. 138, which is 
simpl}' a round iron hook having the portion 
at S the largest in diameter. Whatever size 
is required for the hook shown at S^ com- 
mercial bar iron of that diameter is taken to 
make the hook from ; and, to give the hook 
proportion, the other parts are forged down 
similar to the proportion as shown. To 
hold such a hook in the crane's blocks, a 
thread is cut on the shank at K. The 
principle involved in the hook part can be used in almost all 
classes of hooks. Taking every thing into consideration, this 
style of hook is a very good one for general work ; as it not 
only gives a strong hook, but it is simple and easy to forge. 
The point Y^ as shown, runs well up, so that where two chains 




Fig. 138. 



4.'}0 



IIODKS. 



;uv liitclicd on the luxtk (a tiling often nqtiirccl upoii crane 
h(»i)ks in a foiimliy), tln-re would Ik* no danj^cr of tlii'ir slippinj^ 
off from tho liook. While this is advantageous in this respect, 
there is a limit to the height of the point. A point any higher 
than shown would be much in the way when the hook was uscil 
to hiteh directly into another hook, — a thing which is also often 
necessary to do. 

Another feature that should not bo lost sight of is, that while 
at JV, Fig. 137, and >S, Fig. 13.S, there is the greatest strain 
upon the hook: the b(jttoin, as at /*, Fig. 138, when the hook 
is loaded with two chains, is also greatly strained, and such 
strains have been known to break hooks at P. 

To construct a well-proportioned hook, tlie sections 2^ and *S' 
should be larger in area than that of any other portion, from 
the fact that there is the point which has to stand the greatest 
strain. Theoretically, a really well-proportioned hook would 
be one so constructed that an expert would be luizzlcd to rightly 
guess the part Jirst to break. 

While the above is true proportion, I do not think it advis- 
able to have hooks so finely constructed. It is well to have the 
section at N or S a little the weakest ; for then there will be a 
chance to watch and note any overloading of the hook, which 
can be told by any opening out of the jaw. It is advisable, in 
an}' tool that can endanger life, to have it, if possible, so con- 
structed that its user can be forewarned of any tendency to 
break. 

From the above tests, two things arc to be deduced. One is, 
that the flattened hook is the stiffest ; while through this very 
element it may be said to be the most treacherous, from the fact 
that they are often apt not to open sulliciently l)efore breaking 
to attract attention, while the round hook generally alTords 
ample warning of an overloading. The strength of the hook 
de[)ends greatly upon the mechanic who forges it. There is 
such a thing as abusinif and tlistortinir the librcs of iron so as 



HOOKS. 431 

to leave the hook strahied within itself when finished, and no 
doubt many hooks have been broken that would have stood a 
much greater load if there had been more skill used in their 
construction. One may have hooks made from the same bar 
that, when tested, would give such different results as to cause 
doubts of the same bar having been used. Hooks should never 
be loaded to any thing like what may be thought their ultimate 
strength, and in designing them a large factor of safety should 
be allowed. 

Heretofore there has been, as a general thing, but little thouglit 
given to the question of proportioning hooks, as can be readily 
seen by considering the varieties in use. To Henry R. Towne 
of Stamford, Conn, (manufacturer of hoisting-machinery) 
belongs the praise of presenting, in his work upon cranes, a 
" standard hook ; " and through the courtesy of Mr. Towne the 
hook, accompanied by his formula for its construction, is here 
shown. It is no doubt a hook which will by practical men be 
received as one worthy of imitation. 

..." Fig. 139 represents, to a scale of one-sixth natural 
size, a 5-ton hook of the dimensions and shape determined by 
the following fornnilte, which give the dimensions of the several 
parts of hooks of capacities from 250 pounds (or one-eighth of 
a ton) up to 20,000 pounds (or 10 tons). For hooks of larger 
sizes the formulae become slightly different, the general propor- 
tions, however, remaining the same. 

"For economy of manufacture, each size of hook is made 
from some regular commercial size of round iron. The basis, 
or initial point, in each case, is therefore the size of iron of 
which the hook is to be made, which is indicated by the dimen- 
sion A in the diagram. The dimension D is arl)itrarily 
assumed. The other dimensions, as given by the formula?, 
are those which, while preserving a proper bearing-face on the 
interior of the hook for the ropes or chains which may be 



432 



HOOKS. 



passed thr<ni}j;h it, fjivc tlio {zTcaU'st resistance to spreadinji; and 
\a> tiltiiiiatc rupture which tlie amount of material in the 
original l)ar achnits of. The symliol A is used in the formuhu 
to indicate the )iominal cupacity of the liook in tons of 2,0UU 




Fig. 139. 

pounds. The formulae which determine the lines of the other 
parts of the hooks of the several sizes arc as follows, the 
measurements being all expressed in inches : — 



D = OJi^ +1.25 
£' = 0.64A + 1.60 
F = 0.3:3A + 0.85 

i7=1.08^ 
I = l.ZZA 
J - 1.20.1 
K= \.V?,A 



G = 0.752) 

O = 0.363 A + 0.66 

Q = 0.G4A + 1.60 

L = 1.05.1 
3/= 0.50.1 

IT = 0.866.4 



" Example. — To find the dinicnsiun IJ for a 2-toii hook. The 

formula is : — 

Jj = U.5A + 1.25, 



HOOKS. 433 

and as A = 2 the dimension D by the formula is found to be 2^ 
inches. 

"The dimensions A are necessaril}" based upon the ordinary 
merchant sizes of round iron. The sizes which it has been 
found best to select are the following : — 

Capacity of hook . \, \, \, 1, \\, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 tons. 
Dinicnsioii ^ . . f , \\, f, l^V, U, If, 1|, 2, 2^, 2^, 2|, 3^ inches. 

" The formulae which give the sections of the hook at the 
several points are all expressed in terms of A^ and can there- 
fore be readily ascertained b}' reference to the foregoing scale. 

"■ P^XAMPLE. — To find the dimension / in a 2-ton hook. The 
formula ifi 7=1.33^4, and for a 2-ton hook ^1=1| inch. 
Therefore /, in a 2-ton hook, is found to be l^f inch. 

" Experiment has shown that hooks made according to the 
above formulae will give way first by opening of the jaw, which, 
•hoAvevcr, will not occur except with a load much in. excess of 
the nominal capacity of the hook. This yielding of the hook 
when overloaded becomes a source of safety, as it constitutes a 
signal of danger which cannot easily be overlooked, and which 
must proceed to a considerable length before rupture will occur 
and the load be dropped." . . . 

Figs. 140 to 145 are cuts of hooks very useful for foundries. 
The hooks. Figs. 140, 141, maybe propely termed crane-hooks, 
as thej- are chiefly used with cranes. The cuts of Figs. 140, 141 
show both ends of their hooks as being parallel to each other : 
in practice they are generally made so that the lower hooks L 
will stand at right angles to the upper hooks X. Hook Fig. 140 
is one which is handy to hitch to crane-hooks in order to save 
labor and trouble in handling lighter loads than the capacity of 
crane-hooks is intended for. In heavy cranes the benefit of 
such a hook is much felt, as the bending and turning of heavy 



434 



l!()f)KS. 



hooks and Mocks in liilcliiii;^ onto lii^Iit IoikIs is more or less ii 
nuisance. Jn sonic cases it is well {<> have two of these hooks, 
one to lie lighter than tiie otlii-r : the larjier of the hooks can 
often be nsed to good advantage if iikhIc marly the capacity of 
the crane's hook. 






Fig. 141. 



Fig. 142. 



Figs. 141 and 142 arc what arc commonly known as 
" changing hooks," on account of their being used in changing 
loads from one crane to another. Fig. 142 may be termed the 
safest hook from the fact that it is welded to the shank as 
shown. Fig. 141 is the most popular hook, no douljt because' 
its double hook-end presents the least interference when hitching 




Fig. 143. 




Fig. 144. 




Fig. 145. 



on. Fig. 14;3 is well known as the S-hook, and is one found 
to be very handy in many ways, and can be made from Hat iron 
as well as round. Figs. 1 14 and 11") arc a style of link and 
hook M'Idoiii to be found. Tlicy are simiily niadc from llat 
iron, ranging from h" up to 1" in thickness, and in width from 
1" up to 3". They make the stilTest kind of a hook, and would, 
no doubt^ be uuich used were their strength mure fully known. 




i 



BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 435 



BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 

TiiK l):ilancing and hoisting of moukls is an operation tliat 
often involves experimenting, and sometimes resnlts in loss of 
life or limbs. Of course there are a large number of moulds 
that one can readily hitch to, but again there are a large num- 
ber that require good mechanical judgment and knowledge in 
hoisting ; for such, the following notes and ideas set forth will 
be of value. 

In hitching to moulds, there is one thing that is very apt to 
be overlooked. The general impression is, that, if the crane- 
blockg hang directly over the centre of a mould's weight, it will 
hang level when hoisted up. This idea is not correct, as will 
be seen by the simple example illustrated in cut marked "Test," 
Fig. 14G. This block, instead of being suspended by an over- 
head fulcrum, is let rest upon an underneath fulcrum. The block 
is divided by a dotted line. Each of the parts B and A weighs 
exactly alike. Still you have to deduct 6.76 pounds, or nearly 
7 pounds, from JB, and add it to A^ in order to make the block 
balance, as shown. This will be readily understood b}' those 
who have studied the princi[)le of the lever, and illustrates that 
a mould's centre of weight is not always its balancing-point, 
and that, instead of guessing for the centre of weight, we should 
guess for its centre of gravit}'. Some may ask, Is there not a 
more intelligent way to hitch to a mould than by mere guess- 
work? There is no practical way. Of course the weight might 
be figured, and its balancing-point be determined; but the time 
involved makes such a course generally impracticable. 

As shown by the plumb-bob line, tiie fulcrum or lifting-chain 



43(3 I'.ALANCINfi AND llOlSTINf; MfXI.DS 

is (liivctly over the centre of t^iavify of tlu,' wcinlit. This is 
oI>t:iiiU'(l tlmuiuh tlu' ic^fiilntion of the slings sliown liitclictl to 
tlif lifUng-lH-aiii. 

Tiic icguliitioii of slings to nialvO :i mould lialnncc, allliongh 
ni>|iai(iitly so simple, is an operation that sometimes puzzles a 
Tnoiilder. It often tronlilcs him to tell which way the slings 
should he moved upon the lifting-beam, when they find a nmuld 
hanging similar to the weight that is shown at M. in dottccl 
lines l)elow /?, A. The cause of such unlevel balancing woulil 
be, that the fulcrum ov lifting-block was hung over the point l\ 
seen in B A, the riuhl-liund sling being set in the beam's notch 
No. 1, and the left-hand sling set in No. 1. To make the 
■weight hang level, they must be placed as shown ; remembering 
that moving a sling towards the centre of a beam lifts up ilte 
moiikVs side or end, and that moving a sling towards the end 
of the beam lowers it. I have often seen lirst-dass moulders 
obliged to study for quite a while before they could tell which 
way the slings should be moved. 

About the most dangerous class of moulds with which we 
have to deal are those similar to the one marked Cylindi-r. In 
lifting such moulds, extra care must be taken, or the mould will 
turn over on account of the weight being all above that portion 
by which the mould is lifted. In hoisting any mould, as long 
as we can have tlie largest portion of its weight below the point 
by which it is lifted, there is generally little danger of its cap- 
sizing. Some, in hoisting such a mould, will drive wedges 
beneath the cross or beam, as seen at X. This is, no doubt, a 
good i)lan to adopt in hoisting top-heavy moulds. The farther 
from the lieam the point from which the crane-hook is hitched 
to it, the more weight will it recpiire to pull tlu' lifting-beam out 
of balance ; that is. if the puiut by whicli the lie.-im is suspended 
is rigid, so tliat it will alwnys i-emain in its own relatic^n or 
angle to the beam. In the biam shown lifting 7i and ^1, the 
chain-hook is hitched in an upright rigid beam at riizht angles 



BALANCING AND IIOISTINO MOULDS. 437 

to the main beam. In this upright beam are four holes. The 
fourth or upper one is the fulcrum [)()iiit now used. To illus- 
trnle how we can regulate this point, we will suppose that 
this beam has no weight upon it, thereby allowing us to roek 
it back and forward. After noticing how much weight it A\ill 
take to make one end come down to a given point, we will 
then cut off the top down to hole No. 3. The hook being 
hitched in this hole, we again try it, and so on down to No. 1. 
Now, I think it is very evident that with the top three holes cut 
off, and No. 1 used for the fulcrum, it will not require much 
force to turn the beam entirely over, did the chain seen not 
prevent it. 

This explanation will, I think, prepare for an understanding 
of the principle and advantages of the cross shown. The ideas 
embodied in this cross, and its lifting slings and hooks, are 
such as can be applied to all classes of beams. The rigging, 
as shown, was devised by R. B. Swift. It is the first cross of 
the kind I ever saw ; and, as I am seeing it used almost every 
day, I know it to be a valuable appliance. The ordinary plan 
of lioisting with crosses is to hitch to an eye S. By this plan 
the fulcrum is but little above the centre JVof the beam. Now, 
as we have seen, that, the higher we raise the fulcrum, the 
harder it is to tip up a beam, we must acknowledge that by 
hitching at I", and having the hook slings spread apart as 
shown, it would be a hard matter to tip over a mould, even in 
hoisting top-heavy moulds similar to the cylinder shown. In 
using this lifting-cross, we rarel}' use any wedges between it 
and the mould X. So, if the latter is not exactl}' balanced at 
the point where it is hitched on, there will be little danger of 
its tipping over if the mould does not lift in a level position. 

Another feature of this beam is that its straight face V is 
underneath. This construction is good, as it gives a more 
reliable surface to wedge against when using the cross for bind- 
ing a mould together to be cast. Still another good feature is 



438 lUI.ANCINfi AM) 1I()ISTIN(; MOULDS 

tlio " l<Mic:tluMilii£!; nnii'!," of which there are four. The inden- 
liire E is for llic ituiimsc of ;illo\viiii: the :inii to »l»':ir ihf sliri;^ /•' 
whiii il is altaclicd to (he cross. At any lime. shoiiM a loiijxer 
hcain or cross he waiiLed, tile arms can In- readily attached. If 
a ,stronij;er liftiiii;-cross is re(niired tli;iii tiie one shown, tlie 
principK' set forth will admit of makiiijj; it of any sixc or stren-ith. 
li is a wrought-iron strap used to bind the oiiti?r end of 
" lengthening arras," while a holt is inserted in tlu; holes seen 
near the centre iV, to hold the iniu^r end. T shows the lifting- 
eye y, as seen before being hitched on to the cross. The sling 
seen at F is another view of F^ as seen hitched to the cioss. 
The "swivel" shown is a well-devised one, and is very handy 
for adjusting or binding heavy loaui moulds when being hoisted 
or got ready to be cast. 



INDEX. 



Beam Slings, 

regulation of, 436. 
Bedding-in, 

advantages of and objection to, 147. 
different modes for, 150, 152. 
guides for knocking down patterns, 152. 
moulders' lack of experience with, 149. 
skill required for, 146. 
use of sledges for, 150. 
Binders, 

experiments in testing strength of cope, 205. 
for weighting down copes, 204. 
Blacking, 

bags, 209. 

carbon in, 211. 

charcoal, 209, 215. 

coke, 212, 214. 

complaints against, 208. 

composition of poor and rich, 211. 

daubing for patching cores, etc.. 111. 

definition of sea-coal, 212. 

elements in foundry, 209, 211. 

green-sand skin-dried moulds, 171. 

heavy work moulds, 208. 

lead in, 212, 215. 

Lehigh, 212, 214. 

printing of, 209. 

production of black lead, 21.5. 

silver lead, 210, 215. 

soapstone, 216. 

surface of roll chills, 2.37. 

439 



440 INDKX. 

iJl.Asr I'i;i;ssri!i;. 

cri'.-itioii of. :'i>1. 

ciilliii^ ciiiMdas' liiiiiii;H, 277. "()C,, ni2. 
as r(M|uin'(l for coal ami coke, 277, .'Jol, '.]{)'>, :iW. 
for 12" to I.S" cupolas, 2(J(). 

ilHTcrciicc of, in cupolas and blast-piiK's, 307, 308. 
f,Mui,'in<,' of, .'{07, .'](KS. 
mild for cupola.s, 2(18. 
objections to usinu. ;502, 300, 
ISturtovant's tabic for, .JOtl. 
Blast Tipes, 

detachable leather or rubber, 2G8. 
diameter r.s. length for, oKi. 
friction of air in, ;{l(j. 
reference-points upon, 320. 
table for equalizing the diameter of, 317. 
table for the diameter of main, 318. 
value of air-tight, 310. 
Bloweks, ' 

location for, 310. 
driving-power for, 302, 308, 310. 
r.i.ow-noLES, 

caused from pouring; dull iron, 0. 
produced by chaplets, 52. 
generated through mould-blowing, 41. 
BOLTIXO, 

down binders, — plans for making, 204. 
down floors for green-sand work, 221). 
down loam moulds, Oo, 88, 438. 
half cores together, 02. 
up a difficult loam core, 259. 
r>ui:NiN(i OF Castings, 217. 

amount of iron to use in, 223. 
grade of iron to use for, 22;3. 
Bkusiies, 

camers-hair, 171, 210. 
Candees, 

use of, in closing moulds, 57. 
('AliiiON, 

in blacking, 211. 
in fuel, 280, 305. 
in steel, 377. 



INDEX. 441 

Caiikiages, 

anti-friction boann<2;s for axles in, 233, 416. 

devices for imllins; crane, '.iSi), oUO, 40."), 411, 415. 

for delivery of large castings and ladles, 2ol. 

ill-constructed crane, oS8. 

short, advantages of, for cranes, 387. 

tracks for cranes, 4U5. 
Castings, 

cheaii bought, 15. 
cold-shut, 11), 109, IGl, 213. 
designing, points of value in, 2, 20, 21, 54. 
"dirt in gated end of, 114, 127. 
dirt, injury it can cause to, 10, 19. 

dirt, provisions for collecting and confining it in, 16, 42, 50. 
dirt, rising to upper surfaces of, 41, 44, 239. 
dirt, where generated from in, 15, 122, 127. 
filleting for strength in, 3. 
finishing up, allowing stock for, 114, 118, 132. 
good, uncertainties in producing, 24, 31. 
large, specimens of, 72, 76. 
over-shot, 100, 138, 159, 259. 
poured with hot and dull metal, 38, 41. 
round edges on, 161. 

smooth, points in procuring, 13, 38, 40, 45, 102, 210, 214, 226. 
sound finished, science of making, 39. 
sound, difficulties in producing, 3, 13, 46. 
strains on, 55, 147, 163, 230, 256, 263. 
strength of, 1, 8, 14, 19. 
strengthening, 3, 54, 377. 
strong, heavy scrap for making, 280. 
weights of, errors in figuring, 247. 
well proportioned, 4. 
Wrinkles in Mouldinrj Small: — 

core arbors for small, 141. 

cores, making of, for small, 102. 

flask hinges for small, 139. 

mould-boards for small, 134. 

making joints on moulds for small, 1.59. 

making patterns for small, 165, 167. 

printing blacked moulds for small, 209. 

procuring "good lifts" on moulds for small, 159. 

skimming-gates for, 123. 



Ill: INDKX. 

Chains, 

(lilt link rarkinq. 4(11, Inn. 
iiiiilli|ilir:ili(in of jmrt.s in cniiic-lioisliii;,', 4l'(>. 
slifiiKlh of, .isj, 42C.. 
stii'tcliiiig of oarriaj;*' pulliit;,', .".sO. 
trcacluTOUsnoss of, ."J'.t.!. 

nii-lianillcl liaii,i,'iiig of (•raiir-lioisting, .TSS, 300. 
('ii.vi'i,i:rs, 

(lislanoe to allow for wodfjinp;, IS;]. 

iron stands for support in j,', (>4, 1S;5. 

improper settin^j and wod^ini; of, 17'^. 

loose and tight heads on, 184. 

sharp pointed, 183. 

stem for, 184. 

vooden blocks for supporting bottom, IS;"}. 

CHAPLETIXG, 

green-sand pipe-cores, 141. 
slanting core surfaces, 184. 
wrinkles of value in, 52, 57, Gl, 93, 2G0. 
Chilled Axle BEAUiNdS, 231. 
Chilled Rolls, 

blacking for surface of chills for, 237. 

handy flask for small, 238. 

novel flask for long-necked, 234. 

ride and table for thickness to make chills for, 235, 230. 

utility of whirl-gates in procuring clean, 23l>. 

ClXDEUS, 

beds under moulds, 132, 103. 

fine, power of, to resist pressure, 103, 

in cores, 58. 

in loam-work, 50, 02, 07, 83, 258. 

use of, in venting deep-sided moulds, 101. 

ClUCLES, 

rule for division of, 32, 34, 263. 
table for areas and circumference of, 322. 
CoMiirsTioN, 305. 

chemical action of, in cupolas, 300. 

creation of, in centre of large cupolas, 301, 303. 

economy of, in core ovens, 227. 

forced, in deep drying-pits, 01. 

increased in cupolas by use of "upper tuyeres," 288. 

pound of air required per pound of carbon for, 305, 308. 



■^ INDEX. 443 

CONTKACTIOX, 

(lofiiiilion of, for foundry praclico, 400. 
of long' riinnor gatos, !K). 
strains caused to castings tluough, 220, 400. 
Cores, 

bank sand in, 102. 
beer on, 103. 

blacking small, saving labor in, 102. 
centring of vertical set, 58. 
cinders in, 58. 

cylinder, port and exhaust, making of, 52, 104. 
difficult loam, 02, 67, 250. 
dry sand, expense of making, 140. 
filing a taper on roimd, 170. 
fine sand for, 102. 
flour in, 102. 
flour and rosin in, 103. 
gas in, cause of, 101. 
green sand pipe, 140. 
green sand, for arms in wheels, 203. 
green sand, advantage of, for pipe castings, 145. 
making and venting of, 101. 
pasting of, to form air-tight joints, 92. 
rosin in, 102. 
sagging of, 103. 
segments of, 05, 250, 254. 
setting and centring of ordinary, 173. 
setting of cylinder, 51, 57, 108. 
sleeking green-sand pipe, objections to, 142. 
splicing and securing vents in " butted," 118. 
suspending a heavy dry-sand, 91. 
thin, making of, 101. 
weighting down, rules for, 198, 202. 
Coke Arboks, 

for green-sand pipe cores, 141, 144. 

long skeleton, 91. 

self-forming print and supporting, 144. 

thickness to allow for green sand on pipe, 142. 

tnmnions on, 143. 

vent-holes in, 142. 



444 INDKX. 

('<ii:i: I'.i)XK.«, 

cnnsfniflion of, for ryliiidcrs, .'7, ln|, 1 1:!. 

sand .slicking lu, l(».!. 

small roiiinl iinii, I7<i. 
four. Ikons, 

cast-iron roils for rvlimlcrs. ."S, |(ll. 

t'\|MTinn'nt wilii, I0(». 

\\ clilt'il rods for cylinders, ^J^^, 105. 
T'oKF. Maki:i;s, 

unjust hlaniinii of, lOS. 
value of good, 101. 
f'OPES, 

assistance in obtaining "good lifts," l"0, loO, 100. 

partial drying of loam, S(i. 

proper making of chai)let holes in, 185. 

rules for weighting down, 1!I6, 198. 

trying off and on, to prevent crushing, 09. 

skin-drying green-sand, 170. 

skeleton for loam-work, 85. 

wedging and blocking upon, 183, 186. 

wooden bars for, 156. 

CUANKS, 

advantage of power, over hand, 083, •"185. 

advantage of iron frames over wcjoden for, oOl. 

adjusting out-of-pluiid) jil), 40:}. 

anti-friction rollers for travelling, 416. 

barrels for wire and chain sustaining cords, 392, 093, 395, 411, 426. 

blocks, advantage of heavy for, 390, 393. 

blocks and sheaves for heavy work, 426. 

bracing up the jib of, 401, 403, 409. 

bracing of travelling, 419. 

capacity of, definition for, 408. 

carriage for, see Carriages, p. 441. 

chains for, see Chains, p. 442. 

conduct ing-pipes for steam, 384. 

crank-haudles, removable for, 391. 

crank-shafts, height for, 405. 

crank-shafts, construction of, 392. 

cu]iola, 279. 

cylinders as used upon steam, 383, 384. 

expansion and contraction of travelling, 116. 



INDEX. 445 



Ckanes, — Continued. 

fi-ames, heavy and light iron I-beams for, 384. 

frames, strength of, for, 412. 

frames, kinds of timber used for, 39G. 

friction-power, operating of, 387. 

friction in, loss of power through, 421. 

gearing, designing for, 420. 

"gearing up," 420. 

gearing, " triple-motioned," 399, 413. 

gearing, for more upon, see Gear wheels, p. 450. 

groove wheels for travelling, 410. 

gudgeons, room for oscillation of, 404. 

hand-travellers, ill success of, 413. 

hemp ropes for, see Hemp rope, p. 450. 

hooks for, see Hooks, p. 450. 

hooks, inability to turn, 389. 

illustrations of, 284, 287, 392, 400, 402, 409, 414. 

jib, construction of, 384, 387, 391, 399, 409. 

leverage effect of jib, 403. 

lubrication of, 404, 421. 

motive-power as used for running, 390. 

"motions," utility of, in, 421. 

pendents for travelling, 415. 

platforms for power, 383, 387. 

post, construction of, 407. 

post, erecting masts for, 410. 

post, round balls and conical rollers for, 408. 

power of a, 421. 

power rs. speed, relation of, 420, 427. 

power of a man when hoisting, 420. 

operating power-cranes by hand, 385. 

operating a steam-power, 385. 

safety brake for, 404. 

sensitive working of power, 384. 

sheaves, advantage of large, 388, 395. 

sustaining-cords for heavy, 426. 

tind)er for, see Wood, p. 401. 

travelling, construction of, 413-419. 

travelling, span of, 419. 

utility of travelling and jib, 417, 418. 

wire rope for, see Wire Kope, p. 4G0. 



446 l.NDKX. 

C'ltoss, 

Ifnctlifnins arms for, 4;]S. 
safi'ty halaufiiiir, 4:57. 
Cupolas, 

Anu'rica's inat lico with melting i", :V20-;)7'>. 

ability of, to run loiii: licats, 2S8. 

biin,^'in,!,'-ui) of, 2(17, 'JtM^, 277, 2S(), ^^0'2, :]\2. 

capacity of a 12", 15", and 1»", 270. 

capacity of 20" to 80", ;'.14. 

cliari^ing-doors, advantag*; f)f liij^li, 2ss, ;;n|. 

comments on, •]0L 

constructed for coal or coko, 271, 27<">, ;;o;!, :;20. 

llame at cliarging-doors, diminisiiing of, 2'.Mt. 

fluxes for, see Fluxing, p. 44!). 

hanging-up of, 2()7. 

illustrated, 2C(), 274, 27S, 292, 294, 290, 29S. 

illustrated wlnd-chandjers for, 274, 292, :j00. 

large, points for consideration in making, o03, 

liquid iron accumulating in, 277, ;J12. 

oblong, construction of, 303. 

oddity in designs of, 287. 

original plan for small, 200, 271. 

peep-holes in, 208, 29;1, 304. 

picking-out and dauhing-up of small. 207. 

"scaffolding" of, prevention for, 277,313. 

shells for, construction of, 208. 

small, advantage of, 205. 

small, preparing of, for loiig heats, 207. 

small, successful melting in, 207. 

stacks for small, 209. 

styles used in small, 200. 

taper in small, advantage of, 208. 

tuyeres for, and meUiny in, etc., will all be found under their 
respective heads. 

ClIAKGIXG UP CUPOLAS, 

closeness of, when using coal or coke, .308. 
difference in weights to use with coal and coke, 

270. 270. 
descri)ili\e modes of, 270, 27">, 279, 293, 295, 297, 

330-370. 
effects of random, 285. 



INDEX. 447 

Charging up Cupolas, — Continued. 

Avciglits for 12", 15", and IS", 270. 
with heavy scrap-iron, 278, 280. 
CUPOT.A-MXIXGS, 

blast cutting out, 277, 290, 291, 306. 
daubing for, 267, 860. 

diminishing the diameter of large cupolas by false, 272. 
fluxes, benefit of, in preserving, 312. 
improper daubing of, 312. 
thickness of, for small, 267. 
Cylixdeks, 

blow-holes in, 41, 52. 
cast slanting, 52. 
cast with one head in, 51. 
gating of, 42, 44, 53, 59, 63. 
grades of iron used for, 52. 
horizontal and vertical casting of, 39, 48. 
jacket, 60. 
locomotive, 43, 49. 
marine, 54. 

obtaining of a clean bore in, .38, 51. 
obtaining of a clean valve face on, 48, 55. 
scabbing of, 38, 45, 50. 
unequal wear and cutting of, 52. 
lui-parallel port and exhaust openings, 55. 
unsound riser-heads on, 46. 
Dull Liquid Iijox, 

as used in pouring heavy work, 122. 
causing cold-shut wavy castings, 161, 213. 
cause of holes in castings, 9. 
caused through delays in handling, 283. 
liable to be caused through melting heavy scrap, 280. 
lifting pressure of, 190, 193. 
reason for pouring castings with, 38. 
Dryixg, 

a cylinder in a pit, 60. 
loam mould on the floor, 80. 
kettles for, 61, 172. 
temporary enclosers for, 86. 

P'ACING-SAND, 

causing veined castings, 213. 



448 INDKX. 

FAci.\(i-s.\M>, — ('otitinnril. 

for skiiiHlricd grocn-sand moulds, 170. 
iiiiiiiipuliiliun in .llsill^, l:!:>, l.VJ. 
iiuxiny of, for green-saiul work, 214. 
Fkkdino, 

hy '' (lowiiii^ olT," 47, 5;]. 
iiiaiiiitulatioiis in, 7. 
poron.sncss caused througli ill, 41. 
solid, 2, 47, o6. 
unpractical, 3. 
Fi".r.i)iNi;-iii;Ai>.s, 

below j<jints of moulds, .3. 
causing crooked lioles in castings, 175. 
restriction to number of, -i. 
Fins, 

contraction of, 98. 
on light castings, 158. 

FlN.\IN(i, 

green-sand skin-dried moulds, 170. 

heavy green-sand work, advantage of, IGO. 

of loam and dry-sand moulds, 'J5. 

FlI!K-lU!lCK, 

for false linings in cupolas, 272. 
for oven lire-places, 227. 
for lining small cupolas, 2('»7. 

FlKK-Cl.AVS, 

daubing up cupolas with, 2G7, 277, oOU. 
Flange.s, 

burning or mending a cracked, 220. 
preventing crushing of, 177. 
Flasks, 

causing bad work, 97, 173. 
for chilled rolls, 234, 238. 
objectionable ways to set bars in, 15G. 
trunnions on, 234. 

used for prevention of mould straining, 250. 
Floii!, 

boiled to mix with core-sand, 103. 

in cores, 102. 

in green-sand facing, 109. 

rye, 109. 

use of, in setting cores and chaplets, 05, 185. 



INDEX. 449 

Fluxing, 

limestone for, 207, 334. 
fluor spar for, '■21'>, 35S. 
marble-yard chips for, 334, 366. 
oyster-shell for, 339. 
utility of, in cupolas, 312, 314. 
Foundries, 

facilities for handling metal in, 283, 284. 
good control of, 30. 
labor-saving rigging in, 140. 
machine labor in, 240. 
railway-tracks in, 230. 
Foundry Facings, 

compositions of cheap, 211. 
machinery used in manufacture of, 212. 
the use of, 211. 
Foundry Practice, 

hydrostatics applied to, 195. 
literature upon, 25, 30, 283. 
novelties in, 22. 
patents for, 22. 
progress in, 29, 241. 
specialties in, 29. 
Fuel, 

best for melting hot iron, 273. 
for skin-drying green-sand moulds, 172. 
kindling of, in cupolas, 271, 276. 
natural gas for heating ovens, 227. 
per cent economically used in melting iron, 284, 297. 
per cent of carbon in, .305. 
slack or soft coal for heating ovens, 226. 
Gaggebs, 

castings lost through ill setting of, 1-58. 
manipulations in using and setting, 1.57. 
preference for cast or wrought iron, 157. 
setting of, in skin-dried copes, 170. 
Gas, 

cushions formed in moulds, 213. 

in rosin and flour, 102. 

natural, as used in a core oven, 227. 



450 INDKX. 

(iATKS, 

rontrartion of long, 00. 
nii^liinii of, its. 

cutliiig inoiiMs, iircvciitioii for, ITd. 
kiiiil easiest upon moulds, 117. 
for fylinders, 4;}-4(}, 5J>. 
for chilled rolls, 2;]9. 
" How off," 53, 194, 218. 
horn, no, 123. 

table of, equivalent areas in round and square, etc., 244, 240, 
top pouring, 129. 

skimming, see Skimming-Gates, p. 457. 
styles conmionly Tised, 129, ISO. 
which distribute and confine dirt, 116. 
whirl, 18, 90, 237, 239. 
underneath pouring, 117. 
Gear-wueels, 

contraction allowed for large, 203. 
construction of arms and rim for, 400. 
dcGnition of phrases used for, 422. 
device for moulding, 242, 201. 
form of tooth recommended for large, 204. 
pitch used for cranes, 422. 
objections to core cast, 201 r 
strains In cast, 400. 
strength of teeth in, 423, 424. 
tables for computing pitch, etc., of, 42.3. 
table of standard faces for spur, 424. 
utility of worm, 425. 
HEMP Rope, 

circumference of, to equal strength of wire rope, 394. 
objections to, 304. 
substituting wire rope for, 395. 
Hinges, 

for small work flasks, 139. 
Hoisting Moulds, 435. 

a difficult loam core, 07. 
determining centre of gravity in, 435. 
propeller-wheel copes, SO. 
Hooks, 428. 

crane "changing," 434. 



INDEX. 461 



Hooks, — Continued. 

designing of, 431. 

experiments on strength of round and flat, 428. 
forging of, 480. 

formulas for constructing crane, 4ol-43o. 
proportioned construction of round, 421). 
sizes of iron for crane, 433. 
S, O, and C, 434. 
true proportioned, 430. 
weakest portion of, 429, 430. 
Iron, Cast, 

benefit of agitating fluid, 10. 
formulas upon strength of, 14. 
specific gravity of, 196. 
strength obtained from hot-poured, 8, 9. 
three essential factors to determine in, 11. 
welding of steel and wrought iron to cast, 217. 
Joints, 

ability required to make irregular-shaped, 155. 
bead for hiding overshotness at, 100. 
blacking of dry sand and loam, 90. 
charcoal blacking for parting, 256. 
difference in finning dry-sand and loam, 90. 
for small castings, 134, 158. 
objection to patched, 156. 
paper for forming, 117. 
points in forming loam, 100, 259. 
proper ways to form deej) pocket, 157. 
raised, 112. 

rule for slope in slanting, 157. 
Ladles, 

cause of sulliage gathering upon skimmed, 127. 
melting iron in a, 249. 
screw crane, 232, 238. 
Level, 

how to test and use xmtrue, 154. 
Level Beds, 

how to make a true, 153. 
made Avith pulley rims, 251. 
Loam-cakes, 

for forming grooves, 80. 
for absorbing moisture, 83. 



452 jNi)j;x. 

LoAM-WOKK, 

liuililin;! onpos, R5. 
cindtrs in, 8^5, 2."»S. 
fiilse hul» iiiiuli" of, S2. 
puitlfs for dosing, •.»;!, 200. 
iiiuking i)lat<\san(l rings for, ^fy-^"!, 200. 
means for obtaining rcquinMl lliicivncss in, 00. 
odd ways of i)uilding, 5il. 
pits used for moulding in, 00, TO, 
skeleton copes for, 85. 
springing of moulds, 5.">. 
stiffening plate for, 00, 07, 200. 
^fAcniXK-MorLDixu, advantages claimed for, 14S, 140, 240. 
Melting, 

advantages of coal for, 270, 273, 278, 280. 

advantages of coke for, 273. 

benefits derived from coal and coke mixed, 274, 27S. 

capacity of cupolas from 20" to 80" diaiueter, 314. 

economy in, 2&j, 287, 205. 

escape of heat in, 288. 

fluxes, aiding, 312, 314. 

Lea\y block or scrap in cupolas, 278, 280. 

iron hot, 274, 284. 

long heats, 274, 270, 277, 288, 280, 313, 314. 

small quantities of iron, 248, 205. 

speed in, 273, 280, 300. 

scrap-steel in cupolas, 370-381. 

■\vn)ught-iron scrap in cupolas, .377. 

■wrought or steel borings in cupolas, .381. 

vith all coal,* 270, 330, 331, 333, 330, 330, .340, .344, 307, 372. 

■with all coke,* 270, 275, 203, 207-, 332, 334, :i;J5, 341, 342, 340, 

347, 349, 350-352, 354, 358, 359, 301-360, 308-370, 375. 
with coal and coke,* 270, 275-, 293, 337, 338, 343, 345, 348, 353, 
355-357, 300, 371-374. 
Mklters, superstitious and intelligent, 282. 
Molasses, 

blacking for chill rolls, 237. 

water on cores, 103. 

water on skin-dried moulds, 171. 

* Total meltiuga with all coal, tun ; with all cuku, Uccnti/-nine ; villi coal aud coke, 
eighteen. 



INDEX. 453 

MOUI-BERS, 

bench, 158. 

good reliable export, 2G. 
ignorance of many, 32. 
making cores, 101. 

mental and iihysical development of, 20. 
progressive, 23, 283. 
Moulding, 

a curved pipe from a straight pattern, 250. 

a jacketed cylinder, GO. 

a large piston, 179. 

device for sweeping gear-wheels, 2G1. 

difficult loam cores, G2, 67. 

elbow and branch pipes, 143, 

finished castings horizontally, 114. 

hydraulic hoists, 89, 114. 

large air-vessels, 256. 

l^ipes on end in green sand, 252. 

propeller-wheels in loam, 81. 

true gear-wheels, 149, 261. 

MOULD-BOAKDS, 

composition for making, 13G. 
making match plate, 137. 
making plaster-of-Paris, 134. 
making sand, 136. 
mended with beesw^ax, 13G. 
patent elastic, 137. 
styles commonly used, 134. 
wooden, 136, 149. 
Moulding-machines, 

patent gear, 242. 
utility of, 240. 
Moulding-sand, 

elements in, 211. 
in cores, 102. 
oil and litharge in, 136. 
sharj) sand mixed with, 170. 
strengthening of, 169. 

wet with beer for mending loam-moulds, etc., Ill, 118. 
Nailing, 

around core-prints. 111, 175. 
corners of loam-moulds, 59. 



l.'ii INDEX. 

N.VII-IXf!. — f'outinvrd. 

ctli^cs of saiiil iiioulil-lioanls, 1.17. 
joints of f^rcfii-siiiKl moulds, I.")."), 
skin-tlricil gi-ffii-sainl iiiouMs, 170. 

OVKNS, 

construction of a nioilcrn, li'25. 
heated witli natural gas, '2'21. 
OXYOKN, 

causing "sulliago" upon liquid motal, 127. 
union with carbon in melting, 2tys, 302, oO-j, .300, .'J78. 
Pasti:, 

discretion in use of, 108. 
mixed with clay-wash and blacking, 100. 
mixed with oil, 109. 
to properly mix, 110. 
Patterns, 

abuse of, 1.50, 104, 1G6. 

brass and iron, 107. 

constructed for bedding-in, 154. 

draw irons for, 100, 108. 

draw screws for, 104. 

facilities for drawing of, 107. 

formed of sand, 117. 

liollow elbow and branch pipe, 140, 143. 

"loosening-bar" for rapping, lO-'j. 

lack of taper to, 104, 108. 

*' pounding-block " for preserving, 104. 

pulley rim used for moulding-pipes, 251, 254. 

rapping of, 159, 10.5. 

rapping plates for, 1.59, 1015. 

segments of, 251, 2-54. 

skeleton frame for, 117, 132. 

PATTKKN-MAKEI5S, 

attainments of, 104. 

doing moulder's work, .32. 

making i)atterns for linished castings, 41, 42. 

remarks for, 181. 

thought and skill required of, 108. 

unskilled, 104. 



INDEX. 455 

TirES, 

elbow and branch, 140, 143. 

points of value in horizontal moulding of, 20. 

pulley-rim used for moulding, 251, 254. 
Pits, 

casting deep work in shallow, 93. 

desirable location for, 229. 

fitted up for drying loam-work in, 61. 

formed with cast-iron rings, 228. 

for moulding loam-work in, CO, 70. v 

vent channel, 228. 

rLASTER-OF-PAEIS, 

composition of, 134. 
making mould-boards of, 134. 

POUKING, 

air vessels, 260. 

chilled rolls, 238. 

condensers, 67. 

creation of "sulliage" when, 127. 

cylinders, 44, 53, 59, 65. 

green-sand pipes on end, 255. 

grooved drums, 76. 

heavy castings, — temperature of metal used for, 122. 

large volumes of metal, 120. 

moulds having extremes in space for metal, 44. 

momentum effect in, 187. 

propeller wheel, 88. 

slow filling-up by vertical bottom, 192. 

thin pipe vertically, 45. 

top and bottom, advantage of, 44, 

two "open sand" plates in one mould, 260. 

POUUING-BASINS, 

construction of, for skimming, 18, 117, 130. 
cutting of, 130. 
error in making long, 131. 
for chilled rolls, 237, 239. 
^ height above "flow-off risers," 194. 

made in loam, 65. 
patterns for forming, 255. 



4')«) INDKX. 

rKKssritr, OK I.ii^i ii> Ii;(>\, 

inoinoiitiini, dofinition of, 104. 

updii rliapli'tcd <'on's, risks from, 1S2, 

upon l)ott(nn and side of moulds, rule for 

liudint;, llifj. 
upon sides of flasks, 140. 
statical head, dclinilion of, 20-L 
wlu'n pouretl dull, I'M, I'M. 
Prtxts, 

chanifcrinc: roro. 177. 
cores fonninj,' tlu-ir own, W'l. 
discussions upon, 173. 
for pipe or column patterns, 14.'?. 
gaggering and securing around core, 111, 175. 
making cylinder core, 110. 
setting cores without, 133. 
taper, 174. 

vertical loam core, 57, G7. 
Printing of blacked green-sand moulds, 200. 
Ka.m.mixcj, 

hard, 150, 103. 
to obtain "good lifts," 1.58. 
up loam moulds, 05, 88, 228. 
PlSERS, 

"blind," 126. 

current of air through, 126. 

"flow-off," 49, 218. 

influence of in lessening pressure, 190. 

PiODDING, 

green-sand cores, 251, 254. 
loam mould, 59. 

KOLLIXG OVKK, 

advantage of, 140. 

bad work caused by, 140. 

Avrenching flasks by, 148. 
Rosin, in cores, 102. 
Scabs, 

friction at gates causing, 117. 

loam moulds, part most liable to, 50. 

range for thickness of, 19. 

sticky blacking causing, 210. 

top pouring causing, 45. 



INDEX. 457 

Screws, 

for adjusting and centring loam-cores, 64. 
pitch of, definition for, 7-4. 
swivel, 438. 
Slag, 

accumulation of, 310. 
creation of, causes for, 2G7, 291, 312. 
cold blast eifecting, 312. 
tapping out, 311. 
Slagging out, 

table showing benefit of, 314. 
Slag-iioles, position and height for, 311. 
Shrinkage, 

definition of, for foundry practice, 406. 
holes caused through, 2, 7, 41, 46. 
per cent in, experiments to determine, 4. 
percentage, rule for figuring, 7. 
round balls, 5. 
Skimming-gates, 

bad elements in ordinary, 125. 
"blind risers" attached to, 126. 
castings gated to each other acting as, 127. 
cores for forming, IS, 116, 117, 125, 130. 
heavy and light work, 120. 
illustrated forms for, 17, 121, 123, 125. 
iong channel, advantage of, 127. 
patterns forming, 124, 126. 
patent, 125. 
positive acting, 132. 
relative proportions for, 17, 122. 
utility of, 19, 122, 
value of, for heavy work, 122. 
whirl, 120, 123. 
Skin-drying, 

green-sand moulds, 169-172. 
loam moulds, SO. 
Spindles, 

arms, novel plan for, 68. 
anti-friction arm for, 82. 
for horizontal sweeping, 89. 
for revolving loam cores, 66. 



l.")S INDEX. 

t>ri;<i)I-KS, — f'imtinuril. 
size of, 70, 
spiral groove, 70. 
Squares, areas of, .'322. 
Stakes, 

in frrccii-sanil cores, 251, 253. 
propiT way to drive, 151). 
rinj; for i)roteotioii of, 15!>. 
Stkel Sckat, 

annealing of eastings made from, ^>1C>, oSl. 
carbonization and oxidation of, 378, 3SU. 
carbon, high and low in, 377. 
castings made of, 370. 
• heat required for melting, 378. 
melting of, in cupolas, 370-381. 
melting of, in crucibles and air-furnaces, 380. 
mixed with cast iron for chilling-purposes, 377-380. 
principles in melting, 381. 
procuring homogeneous castings, 379. 
soft, best for making strong castings, 377. 
strengthening cast iron with, 377. 
Steel, welding of, to cast-iron, 217-220. 
Sti;aiuut-ki)ges, 

how to make level beds with, 153. 
parallel, 153. 
squaring beds with, 30. 
Sweeps, 

air-vessel, 275. 

balance weight for raising and lowering, 87. 
cylinder, 58, 02. 
dry-sand taper-core, 92. 
groove-drum, 73, 77, 79. 
gear-wheel, 202. 
ill gauging of, 09. 
ironing wooden, 78. 
lathe face-plate, 132. 
revolving loam-core, 07. 
SWEEI'ING, 

adjustable guide for, 82. 
dinii'ult loam-cores, 02, 07, 257. 
device for geai--wheels, 242, 201. 



INDEX. 459 

Sweeping, — Continued, 

grecn-saud pipe-cores, 140, 142. 
grooves iu drums, 72, 70, 78, 80. 
large lathe face-plate, 132. 
long irregular dry-sand cores, 92. 
manipulations in green sand, 117, 132. 
revolving loam-cores, 70. 
"thickness" on loam-moulds, 84, 256, 258. 
under sm-face of loam-moulds, 60. 
Testing, 

bars, moulding of, 13. 
bars, size for, 8. 
burnt or mended castings, 218. 
machine, 10. 
pig-iron, 2G5. 
pipes, 20. 

spring of "bolting-down binders," 204. 
table giving strength of hot and dull i)oured bars, 9. 
value of cupolas, 287. 
Tubes, 

connecting vents of butted column-cores with, 118. 
securing core vents with, 64. 

TUYEKES, 

areas of for small cupolas, 268, 271, 320. 

areas adaptable for coke and coal, 301, 320. 

area and construction of, rules for finding, 319, 320. 

choking-up of, 307, 313. 

dimensions for a 12", 15", and 18" cupola, 271. 

equal division of, in cupolas, 319. 

height to adopt for coal and coke, 276, 303. 

large, advantage of, 307, 313, 315. 

kept open for long heats, how to, 307, 313. 

ratio of areas to that of cupolas, table on, 321. 

two rows of, advantage of, for long heats, 289. 

two rows of, experiments with, 289. 

two rows of, speed gained in melting by using, 289, 361. 

top I'ow, rule for height and area of, 291. 

top row, objections to, 291. 

valves for closing top rows, 289. 



-1»;0 INDKX. 

Vknts, 

caiisps of iron pottinp info core, OS, f»1, T).', ns, 107, US, isl, 2(M5. 
(•arryiii.;,'-off of vcrticiil set core, 177. 
coiw^triiclioii of i)ort ami exhaust eorc, ."iS, KXJ. 
fornietl by roils and strings in cores, KMS. 
metal burstin:^ through core, 107. 
risk of metal getting into under core, isi, 2fK5. 
securing core, 5S, (14, !t2, lOS, liy, ISl, 200. 
splicing or connecting, lis. 
Vkntincj, 

cores, 101, lOn. 

joints of mouhls reliably, 101. 
moulds that require hard ramming, 103. 
sides of deep moiUds, 101. 
Vent-Wirks, 

size of, 102. 
using rods for, 2.32. 
Wedges, 

breaking of iron, 182, 
dimensions for iron, 184. 
Weights of Castings, 

error in figuring, 247. 
table for saving labor in figuring, 328. 
Weighting Doavn, 

binders for copes, 204. 
copes, rules for, 196, 108. 
horizontal set-cores, rules for, I'JS, 201, 202. 
vertical set-cores, 202. 
Wire, 

size for twisting, 51. 
used in tying brickwork, 86. 
Wire Kope, 

advantage of, for cranes, 393. 
for sustaining cords, 302. 
objections to, 202, 304. 
I.lial)ility of, 305. 
preserving of, 303, 305. 
Itoebling's table, etc., on strength uf, 304. 
sheaves and drums, size for, 302. 
Wheels, causes for crooked holes in, 173. 
WuEEL Gearing. See Gear wheels, p. 450. 



INDEX. 4G1 

Wood, 

kinds used for crane framos, 30(3. 
relative sectional strength of, 308. 
table on strength of, 397. 
transverse strength of, 398. 
Wrought-ikon, 

melting of, in cupolas, 377. 

welding of, to cast-iron, 217-220. 



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